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PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


YOUNGKEN 









Dryopleris marginalis, one of the ferns whose rhizome and stipes constitute 
the drug, Aspidium. 


( Frontispiece) 



PHARMACEUTICAL 

BOTANY 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR STUDENTS OF 
PHARMACY AND SCIENCE 



BY 


HEBER. W.> YOUNGKEN, A.M., M.S., Ph.M., Ph.D. 


PROFESSOR OF BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY AND DIRECTOR OF THE MICROSCOPICAL 
LABORATORIES IN THE PHILADELPHIA COLLEGE OF PHARMACY AND SCIENCE 


THIRD EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED 
WITH 238 ILLUSTRATIONS 
AND GLOSSARY OF BOTANICAL TERMS 


PHILADELPHIA 

P. BLAKISTON’S SON & CO. 

1012 WALNUT STREET 


9K>7 



I 9 <sLo 


Copyright, 1921 , by P. Blakiston’s Son & Co. 


“The use in this volume of certain portions of the text of the United 
States Pharmacopoeia is by virtue of permission received from the Board 
of Trustees of the United States Pharmacopoeial Convention. The said 
Board of Trustees is not responsible for any inaccuracy of quotation nor 
for any errors in the statement of quantities or percentage strengths.” 


/ 



JAN -4 1921 


THE MAPLE PRESS YORK PA 


©CLA605271 


-v., 1 



) TC. bC * 


i 


PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION 

The author has first endeavored to present in a clear, systematic 
way those fundamental principles of structural and taxonomic 
botany which serve as a key to the approach of pharmacognic 
problems. But he has not been unmindful that the use of the work 
has extended to academic institutions and, so, in this edition, has 
broadened the scope of the former text. To this end about ninety 
additional pages of subject matter have been introduced. Several 
old cuts have been removed. Forty-three new ones have been in¬ 
serted. Hypothetical discussions have been avoided which saves 
time for the reader. 

The arrangement and plan of the chapters are similar to that of 
the former edition, in order to adapt the work to several methods of 
approach. Chapter I on “Fundamental Considerations” has been 
augmented by treatises on Botanical Nomenclature, Paraffine and 
Celloidin Imbedding, Sectioning, Staining and Mounting, Micro¬ 
tomes and other information dealing with the preparation of materials 
for microscopic examination. 

Ten pages have been added to Chapter V on Cytology. Under 
“Protoplasm and its Properties,” six pages have been written on 
the subject of Irritability and Irritable Reactions. Under “ Non- 
Pro toplasmic Cell Contents” several additional commercial starches 
are discussed and two original plates on starch grains added. Addi¬ 
tional cuts on Collenchyma, Stone Cells, Sclerenchyma Fibers, 
Trichomes and Fibrovascular Bundles have been inserted in Chapter 
VI. 

Nine additional pages of subject matter and illustrations have been 
added to Chapter VII. Original figures of all of the important 
types of fruits appear here for the first time. 

vii 


Vlll 


PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION 


Chapter VIII on “Taxonomy” has been increased by seven pages 
of new data, and the whole former text carefully revised. 

Chapter IX on “Ecology” has been newly introduced as has also 
a Glossary of Botanical Terms. The index has been so planned as 
to make the information contained in this book readily accessible. 

To the authors of works from which cuts were borrowed the 
writer’s thanks are due. 


H. W. Y. 


PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION 


The appearance of the United States Pharmacopoeia IX and the 
National Formulary IV, with the many changes in the lists and 
definitions of officially recognized vegetable drugs made it necessary 
to revise the former edition of this work. 

In the course of revision, the writer has taken cognizance of the 
growing importance of Botany in the curricula of pharmaceutical 
institutions and has accordingly expanded upon the subject matter 
of the former text. 

With the adoption for the first time by the new United States 
Pharmacopoeia of pharmacognic standards for numerous drugs, 
Pharmacognosy has risen to the forefront in this country as a science. 
While its proper comprehension requires laboratory instruction in 
chemistry, physics, and crystallography as well as botany, neverthe¬ 
less a rather extended foundation in structural botany stands out 
preeminently as the most needed requirement. 

The work has been for the most part remodeled. Chapter I deals 
with Fundamental Considerations. Chapter II is devoted to the 
life history of the Male Fern, a median type of plant, the considera¬ 
tion of which, after the students have received fundamental practice 
in the use of the microscope, the writer has found commendable, for 
it not only gives beginners a working knowledge of structures and 
functions, the homologies and analogies of which will be met in the 
later study of forms of higher and lower domain, but holds their 
interest on account of its economic importance. 

The life history of a type of Gymnosperm, White Pine, is next 
taken up in Chapter III. Chapter IV considers the life history of an 
Angiosperm as well as coordinates the resemblances and differences 
between Gymnosperms and Angiosperms. Chapters V, VI and 
VII are devoted respectively to Vegetable Cytology, Plant Tissues 
and Plant Organs and Organisms. Among the many additions to. 


IX 


X 


PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION 


the topics included in these might be mentioned a treatise on Cell 
Formation and Reproduction including Indirect Nuclear Division, 
twenty pages on Non-Protoplasmic Cell Contents, the considera¬ 
tion of Woods, Root Tubercles, the gross structure and histology of 
different types of leaves, broad histologic differences between Mono- 
cotyl and Dicotyl leaves, the histology of floral parts and the his¬ 
tology of types of fruits and seeds. Chapter VIII on Taxonomy 
has been increased by the addition of 144 pages. Several new fami¬ 
lies of drug-yielding plants have been added and the treatment of 
family characteristics has in the majority of instances been broad¬ 
ened. The habitats of drug-yielding plants have been added. In 
that portion of the tables dealing with the names of official drugs, 
those official in the National Formulary have been so designated by 
the abbreviation N. F., to distinguish them from others that may 
occur in the same portion of the table and which are official in the 
Pharmacopoeia. 

In keeping \vith the increased size of the book, many new illus¬ 
trations have been introduced. A number of these are original 
drawings, photographs and photomicrographs. To the authors of 
other works from which cuts were borrowed, the writer’s thanks are 
due. 

The writer in conclusion desires to thank Dr. John M. Macfarlane, 
head of the Botanical Department of the University of Pennsylvania, 
for valuable suggestions during the preparation of portions of the 
text. 


H. W. Y. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER I 

Fundamental Considerations 

Pages 


DEPARTMENTS OF BOTANICAL INQUIRY.—i. Morphology 
(Gross Anatomy, Histology, Cytology). 2. Physiology. 3. 
Taxonomy or Systematic Botany. 4. Ecology. 5. Genetics. 

6. Phytopathology. 7. Phytogeography. 8. Phytopalaeontol¬ 
ogy. 9. Etiology. 10. Economic Botany and its sub¬ 
divisions. 1-2 

PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION.—Natural System: species; 

genus; family; order; class; subdivision; division; variety; 

race; hybrid.... 2-3 

OUTLINE OF PLANT GROUPS. 3-4 

BOTANICAL NOMENCLATURE. 4~7 

THE MICROSCOPE.—Definition. The simple microscope. The 
dissection microscope. The compound microscope: its con¬ 
struction and use. The binocular microscope. Rules for the 
care of the microscope. 7-14 

MAKING OF SECTIONS.—Free hand sectioning. Kinds of sections. 
Microtomes (hand, sliding and rotary), their construction 
and use. 15-20 

THE TECHNIQUE OF MAKING A TEMPORARY MOUNT . 20 


THE TECHNIQUE OF MAKING PERMANENT MOUNTS.— 
The mounting medium; Staining. Method for the Prepara¬ 
tion of a Canada Balsam Mount. Method for the Prepara¬ 
tion of a Glycerin-Gelatin Mount. Technique of Fixing, 
Dehydrating, Hardening and Imbedding in Paraffine. Tech¬ 
nique of Sectioning and Mounting Material Imbedded in 
Paraffine. Method for the Staining and Mounting of Material 


in Paraffine Ribbons affixed to slide. Imbedding in Celloidin. 
Sectioning Celloidin Material. Staining and Mounting 
Celloidin Sections... 20-30 

DESILICIFICATION. SCHULZE’S MACERATION PROCESS.. 30-31 

MICROMETRY.—Unit of microscopical measurement. Standardi¬ 
zation of the Ocular Micrometer... 31-32 


xi 











Xii CONTENTS 

CHAPTER II 

Life History of the Male Fern 

HISTORY OF THE SPOROPHYTE OR ASEXUAL GENERATION. 
—Gross structure of stem. Histology of mature stem. His¬ 
tology of growing apex. Histology of mature root. Histology 
of root apex. Continuity of crude sap flow. Histology of 
stipe. Histology of lamina. Comparative physiology of 
root, stem and leaf. Gross structure and histology of the 
sori and sporangia. Rupture of sporangium and spore dis¬ 
semination. HISTORY OF THE GAMETOPHYTE OR 
SEXUAL GENERATION.—Origin of new sporophyte or 
diploid plant from fertilized egg. Growth of seedling into 
mature sporophyte. Alternation of generations. 


CHAPTER III 

Life History of a Gymnosperm (Pinus Strobus) 

DESCRIPTION OF THE WHITE PINE TREE (SPOROPHYTE). 
—Staminate cones. Carpellate cones. DESCRIPTION OF 
THE GAMETOPHYTE GENERATION.—The Male Game- 
tophyte. The Female Gametophyte. Fertilization. Seed 
Formation and Distribution. GERMINATION OF THE 
SEED. 


CHAPTER IV 

Life History of an Angiosperm 

DESCRIPTION OF THE DOG’S TOOTH VIOLET.—Development 
of Female Gametophyte. Maturation of the Pollen Grain 
and formation of the Male Gametophyte. Pollination and 
Fertilization. Ripening of the Ovule to form the Seed and 
of the Ovary to form the Fruit. Germination of the Seed and 
development of the Mature Sporophyte. 

RESEMBLANCES BETWEEN GYMNOSPERMS AND ANGIO- 
SPERMS. 

FUNDAMENTAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GYMNOSPERMS 
AND ANGIOSPERMS. 


Pages 


33-44 


45-52 


. 53-58 
58 
58-59 








CONTENTS 

CHAPTER V 
Vegetable Cytology 

VEGETABLE CYTOLOGY.—Definition. The Plant Cell as the 
Fundamental Unit. A typical Plant Cell. 

PROTOPLASM AND ITS PROPERTIES.—Structure. Metabolism. 

Irritability (Thermotropism, Chemotropism, Sitotropism, 
Hydrotropism, Heliotropism, Geotropism, GalVanotropism, 
Thigmotropism.) Reproduction. 

PROTOPLASMIC CELL CONTENTS—Cytoplasm; fiucleus; nu¬ 
cleolus; plastids (leucoplastids, chloroplastids, chromoplastids) 

CELL FORMATION AND REPRODUCTION.—Asexual and sexual 
cells. Reproduction defined. Asexual Reproduction: Fis¬ 
sion; Gemmation; Free Cell Formation; Rejuvenescence. 
Sexual Reproduction: Conjugation and Fertilization. 

INDIRECT NUCLEAR DIVISION. 

NON-PROTOPLASMIC CELL CONTENTS. —Sugars. Starch. 

Inulin. Hesperidin. Strophanthin. Salicin. Saponin. Coni- 
ferin. Digitoxin. Characteristics of Glucosides. Alkaloids 
and their properties. The alkaloids, Strychnine, Veratrine, 
Nicotine, Caffeine, Cocaine, Aconitine, Colchicine. Gluco- 
alkaloids. Asparagine. Calcium Oxalate. Cystoliths. Silica. 
Tannins. Proteins. Aleurone Grains. Mucilages and Gums. 
Fixed Oils and Fats. Volatile Oils. Resins. Oleoresins. 
Gum Resins. Balsams. Pigments. Latex. Enzymes 
Classification of Enzymes.......... 

CELL WALLS.—Their formation and composition. Growth in area 
and thickness. Various kinds of cell walls and behavior of 
each to micro-chemic reagents. 

CHAPTER VI 
Plant Tissues 

PLANT TISSUES.—Tissue defined. The Tissues of Spermatophytes 
and Pteridophytes: Generative Tissues. List of Tissues. 

MERISTEM.—Definition. Primary and secondary meristems; their 
distribution.. 


xiii 

Pages 

60-61 

62-68 

68—70 

70- 71 

71- 74 


74-96 

96—98 


99-100 

100 










XIV 


CONTENTS 


PARENCHYMA.-—Definition; ordinary parenchyma; assimilation 
parenchyma; conducting parenchyma; reserve parenchyma; 
their structure, distribution and function.... 

COLLENCHYMA.—Definition, function and distribution. 

SCLERENCHYMA.—Definition; stone cells; sclerenchyma fibers; 

wood fibers; bast fibers; their distribution. 

EPIDERMIS.—Definition; transpiration and water stomata; epider¬ 
mal papillae; trichomes; scales; their distribution and functions. 

ENDODERMIS.—Definition, distribution and functions. 

CORK.—Definition; its derivation, function and distribution .... 

LATICIFEROUS TISSUE.—The structure, origin, distribution of 
latex cells, laticiferous vessels and secretory cells. Latex . . 

SIEVE (LEPTOME OR CRIBIFORM) TISSUE.—Definition; distri¬ 
bution; function. 

TRACHEARY TISSUE.—Tracheae: Definition, function and classifi¬ 
cation; Tracheids: Definition and function. 

MEDULLARY RAYS.—Primary and Secondary; their distribution 
and functions. 

FIBRO-VASCULAR BUNDLES.—Definition of the various types; 
the distribution of each type; Xylem and Phloem. 

SECRETION SACS.—Definition and distribution. 

INTERCELLULAR AIR SPACES.—Definition; schizogenous and 
lysigenous air spaces; their relative size. 

SECRETION RESERVOIRS.—Definition; structure; internal glands; 
secretion canals. 

CLASSIFICATION OF TISSUES ACCORDING TO FUNCTION . 

CHAPTER VII 
Plant Organs and Organisms 

PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS.—Organ and organism defined. 
Vegetative Organs: Roots, stems and leaves. Reproductive 
Organs: Flower, fruit and seed. Embryo and its parts; func¬ 
tion of the cotyledon. 


Pages 

101-103 

103 

103-106 

106-109 

109- 110 
no 

110- 112 

112 

112-116 

116- 117 

117- 119 
119 

119 

119-120 

120 


121 














CONTENTS 


XV 


THE ROOT.—Definition; functions; root hairs; root cap; generative 
tissues; differences between root and stem. 

CLASSIFICATION OF ROOTS AS TO FORM.—Primary root; tap 
root; secondary roots; fibrous and fleshy roots; anomalous 
roots; adventitious roots; epiphytic roots; haustoria. 

CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS ACCORDING TO DURATION 
OF ROOT.—Annual; Biennial; Perennial. 

ROOT HISTOLOGY.— A. Monocotyledons. B. Dicotyledons; Histol¬ 
ogy and Development of the California Privet root; Abnormal 
structure of Dicotyl roots; Histology of a Dicotyl Tuberous 
Root, Aconitum. 

ROOT TUBERCLES.—Definition; occurrence on roots of Leguminosae, 
Myricaceae, etc.; their etiology. 

THE BUD.—Definition; plumule, scaly buds, naked buds; Classifica¬ 
tion of Buds According to Position on Stem: terminal bud; 
axillary or lateral bud; adventitious bud; accessory bud. 
Classification of Buds According to Development: leaf bud; 
flower bud and mixed bud. Classification of Buds According 
to their Arrangement on the Stem: alternate; opposite; 
whorled.. 

THE STEM.—Definition; direction of growth; functions; size; nodes 
and internodes; stem elongation; duration of stems; stem 
modifications; above ground stems; herb and tree defined; 
underground stems; exogenous and endogenous stems. . . . 

STEM HISTOLOGY.—Annual Dicotyl; Perennial Dicotyl; Excep¬ 
tional Types of Dicotyl Stems; Lenticels and Their Forma¬ 
tion; Annual Thickening of Stems; Method of formation; 
“Annual Ring.” Bark: Definition; zones; Periderm; Phello- 
derm; Histology of Cascara Sagrada bark. Wood: alburnum; 
duramen; microscopic characteristics of Angiospermous and 
Gymnospermous woods; Histology of Typical Herbaceous 
Monocotyl Stems; Histology of Typical Woody Monocotyl 
Stem. 

THE LEAF.—Definition; leaf functions: photosynthesis; assimilation; 

respiration; transpiration. 

TYPES OF LEAVES DEVELOPED IN ANGIOSPERMS.—Cotyle¬ 
dons; Scale leaves; Foliage leaves; Bract leaves: bracts and 
bracteoles; Sepals; Petals; Microsporophylls; Megasporophylls 


Pages 

121-123 

123- 124 

124 

124- 132 

132-135 

135 - 136 

136- 140 


140-154 

155 

155-156 










XVI 


CONTENTS 


Pages 

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF LEAVES.—Primordial leaf. 

Its formation. 156 

PHYLLOTAXY.—Definition; spiral law of leaf arrangement; alternate; 

opposite, decussate; whorled; fascicled; leaf rank.156-157 

VERNATION.—Definition; indexed or reclinate; conduplicate; con¬ 
volute; circinate; plicate; involute; revolute . . . . . . .157-158 

THE COMPLETE LEAF/—Its parts; sessile; petiolate; exstipulate; 

stipulate.158-159 

LEAF VENATION.—Furchate; parallel; reticulate; pinni-veined; 

palmately veined; anastomosing veins. 159 

LEAF INSERTION.—Definition; radical; cauline; ramal; perfoliate; 

amplexicaul; connate-perfoliate; equitant.159-161 

FORMS OF LEAVES.—Simple and Compound, (a) General Outline: 


ovate; linear; lanceolate; elliptical; oblong; inequilateral; or¬ 
bicular; peltate; filiform; oblanceolate; cuneate; spatulate; en- 
siform; acerose; deltoid. ( b ) Apex: acute; acuminate; obtuse; 
truncate; mucronate; cuspidate; aristate; emarginate; retuse; 
obcordate. (c) Base: cordate; reniform; hastate; auriculate; 
sagittate, (d) Margin: entire, serrate; dentate; crenate; 
repand; sinuate; incised; runcinate; lobed; cleft; parted; di¬ 


vided. Forms of Compound Leaves.161-166 

LEAF TEXTURE.—Membranous; succulent; coriaceous. 166 

LEAF COLOR.—Variations in color. 166 

LEAF SURFACE.—Glabrous; glaucous; pellucid-punctate; scabrous; 

pubescent; villose; sericious; hispid; tomentose; spinose; 
rugose; verrucose. 166 

DURATION OF LEAVES.—Persistent or evergreen; deciduous; cadu¬ 
cous; fugacious. 

GROSS STRUCTURE AND HISTOLOGY OF THE LEAF PETIOLE. 

—In Monocotyledons. In Dicotyledons. Pulvinus. Peri- 
cladium.167-168 

STIPULES.—Definition; lateral; free-lateral; lateral-adnate; lateral- 
connate; lateral interpetiolar. Axillary; ochrea. Modified 
Stipules.168-169 















CONTENTS 


XVII 


Pages 

THE LAMINA.—Definition. Mode of Development of the Lamina 
of Leaves: Dorsoventral; convergent; centric; bifacial; re¬ 
versed; ob-dorsoventral. A. Dorsoventral: (a) Dorsoventral 
Umbrophytic; ( b ) Dorsoventral Mesophytic; (c) Dorsoventral 
Xerophytic; (d) Dorsoventral Hydrophytic. Gross Structure 
and Histology of Different Types of Dorsoventral Leaf Blades. 

Gross Structure and Histology of the following types: B. 


Convergent; C. Centric; D. Bifacial.169-173 

STRUCTURE AND DEVELOPMENT OF STOMATA.173-176 

HISTOLOGIC DIFFERENCES BETWEEN LEAVES OF DICOTY¬ 
LEDONS AND MONOCOTYLEDONS. 176 

INFLORESCENCE.—Definition; Parts of Inflorescences; Determi¬ 
nate; Indeterminate; Mixed Forms of Indeterminate and 
Determinate Inflorescences.177-180 

PRiEFLORATION.—Convolute; involute; revolute; plicate; imbricate; 

valvate; vexillary; contorted. 180 

THE FLOWER.—Definition; floral parts; essential organs; complete; 

perfect; hermaphrodite; regular; symmetrical; imperfect; 
double; staminate; pistillate; neutral; connation; adnation. . 181-183 

THE RECEPTACLE, TORUS OR THALAMUS.—Definition; varia¬ 
tions in structure; anthophore; gonophore; gynophore; carpo¬ 
phore. .. . 183 

THE PERIGONE.—Definition; dichlamydeous; monochlamydeous . 183 

THE CALYX.—Definition; parts; physical characteristics; connation; 

kinds and forms; persistence; adnation; sepaline spurs; sepaline 
stipules; sepaline position.183-185 

THE COROLLA.—Definition; parts; physical characteristics; func¬ 
tions. Forms of the Corolla and Perianth.185-188 


THE ANDRCECIUM OR STAMEN SYSTEM.—Definition; parts; 
terms denoting number of stamens in flower; insertion of sta¬ 
mens; proportions of stamens; connation of stamens; stamen 
color. Gross Structure and Histology of the Filament. Gross 
Structure and Histology of the Anther. Anther Dehiscence. 
Development of the Anther. Attachment of Anther. 

Pollen: description; forms.188-195 











XV 111 


CONTENTS 


THE GYNCECIUM OR PISTIL SYSTEM—Definition; Gymno- 
spermous and Angiospermous; parts; the pistil a modified leaf; 
carpel; dehiscence; apocarpous and syncarpous pistils; terms 
denoting the number of carpels entering into the formation of 
the pistil; compound pistils; ovules or megasori as trans¬ 
formed buds; position of ovules in ovary; Gymnospermous 
and Angiospermous ovules; structure of Angiospermous ovule; 
shape of ovule. 

THE PLACENTA.—Definition; types of placenta arrangement . . . 

THE STYLE.—Definition; style-arms; relation to carpels forming the 
gynoecium; variations from typical stylar development . . . 

THE STIGMA.—Definition; forms in wind- and animal-pollinated 
flowers; stigmatic papillae. 

POLLINATION.—Definition; Close and Cross Pollination; terms 
applied to plants pollinated by various agencies. 

MATURATION OF THE POLLEN GRAIN AND FORMATION OF 
MALE GAMETOPHYTE. 

MATURATION OF THE EMBRYO SAC AND FORMATION OF 
THE FEMALE GAMETOPHYTE. 

FERTILIZATION IN ANGIOSPERMS.—Process; formation of 
embryo and endosperm. 

THE FRUIT.—Definition; modifications ... . 

FRUIT STRUCTURE.—Pericarp; pseudocarp; anthocarp; epicarp; 

mesocarp; endocarp; sarcocarp; putamen; sutures; valves; 
dehiscence. 

CLASSIFICATION OF FRUITS.—Simple; Aggregate; Multiple; dry 
dehiscent; dry indehiscent; fleshy indehistent. Forms of 
Simple Fruits: capsular; schizocarpic; achenial; baccate; 
drupaceous. Etaerio. Forms of Multiple Fruits; strobile or 
cone; sorosis; syconium; galbalus. 

HISTOLOGY OF A CAPSULE, VANILLA. 

HISTOLOGY OF A MERICARP, FCENICULUM. 

THE SEED.—Definition; structure; functions; appendages. 

MODE OF FORMATION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF ALBUMEN. 
—Perispermic; endospermic; perispermic and endospermic; 
exalbuminous and albuminous seeds.. . 


Pages 


195-197 

197 

198 

199 

199- 200 

200 

200 

200- 201 
202 

202-204 


204-211 

211- 212 

212- 213 

213- 214 


214-215 














CONTENTS 


XIX 


A MONOCOTYL SEED.—Its gross structure and histology. 

A MONOCOTYL SEEDLING.—Germination and structure. 

A DICOTYL SEED.—Its gross structure and histology. 

CHAPTER VIII 
Taxonomy 

THALLOPHYTA.—Definition. Characters of the Protophyta, Myxo- 
mycetes, Algae, Fungi and Lichenes. The Mounting and 
Staining of Bacteria. Life histories of representative types of 
Thallophytes. Plants of the group yielding drugs and eco¬ 
nomic products. 

BRYOPHYTA.—Definition. Characters of the Hepaticae and Musci. 
Life history of a typical true moss. 

PTERIDOPHYTA.—Definition. Characters of the Lycopodineae, 
Equisetineae and Filicineae. Life history of a typical fern. 
Plants of the group yielding official drugs. 

SPERM ATOPHYTA (PHANEROG AMI A) .—Definition. Charac¬ 
teristics of the Gymnosperms and of the Order and Family 
yielding important drugs and economic products. Table of 
official and unofficial drugs yielded by Gymnosperms including 
part of plants used, botanical origins and habitats. Charac¬ 
teristics of the Angiosperms and of the classes and families 
yielding drugs. Tables of official and unofficial drugs with the 
names of the plants, parts constituting the drugs and habitats. 

CHAPTER IX 
Ecology 

PLANT ASSOCIATIONS.—Definition. Classification based on re¬ 
lation plant associations have assumed in regard to water. 
Characteristics of Hydrophytes, Helophytes, Halophytes, 
Xerophytes, Mesophytes and Tropophytes. 

GLOSSARY.. 

INDEX.. . . 


Pagbs 

215- 216 

216- 217 

217- 218 

219-282 

282-287 

287-292 


29 2-407 


408-412 

412-440 

441-479 








































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PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


CHAPTER I 

FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS 
Botany is the Science which Treats of Plants 
DEPARTMENTS OF BOTANICAL INQUIRY 

1. Morphology treats of the parts, or structure of plants. It is 
divided into: 

(a) Macromorphology or Gross Anatomy which deals with the ex¬ 
ternal characters of plants or their parts; ( b ) Micromorphology or 
Histology which considers the minute or microscopical structure of 
plants and plant tissues; and (c) Cytology which treats of plant cells 
and their contents. 

2. Physiology deals with the study of the life processes or func¬ 
tions of plants. It explains how the various parts of plants perform 
their work of growth, reproduction, and the preparation of food for 
the support of animal life from substances not adapted to that use. 

3. Taxonomy or Systematic Botany considers the classification or 
arrangement of plants in groups or ranks in accordance with their 
relationships to one another. 

4. Ecology treats of plants and their parts in relation to their 
environment. 

5. Plant Genetics seeks to account for the resemblances and dif¬ 
ferences which are exhibited by plants related by descent. 

6. Phytopathology treats of diseases of plants. 

7. Phytogeography or Plant Geography treats of the distribution 
of plants upon the earth. The center of distribution for each species 
of plant is the habitat or the original source from which it spreads, 
often over widely distant regions. When plants grow in their 
native countries they are said to be indigenous to those regions. 
When they grow in a locality other than their original home they 
are said to be naturalized. 



2 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


8. Phytopalaeontology or Geological Botany treats of plants of 
former ages of the earth’s history traceable in their fossil remains. 

9. Etiology is the study of the causes of various phenomena ex¬ 
hibited by plants. 

10. Economic or Applied Botany deals with the science from a 
practical standpoint, showing the special adaptation of the vegetable 
kingdom to the needs of everyday life. It comprises a number of 
subdivisions, viz.: Agricultural Botany, Horticulture, Forestry, 
Plant Breeding, and Pharmaceutical Botany. Pharmaceutical 
Botany considers plants or their parts with reference to their use 
as drugs. It interlocks very closely with other departments of 
botanical science. 

PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION 

The classification of plants is an attempt to express the exact 
kinship which is believed to exist among them. By grouping to¬ 
gether those plants which are in some respects similar and combining 
these groups with others, it is possible to form something like an 
orderly system of classification. Such a system based upon natural 
resemblances is called a natural system. In a natural system of 
classification every individual plant belongs to a species, every species 
to a genus, every genus to a family , every family to an order, every 
order to a class, every class to a division . In many instances species 
may be subdivided into varieties or races. The crossing of two 
varieties or species, rarely of two genera, gives rise to a hybrid. 
Thus, the species Papaver somniferum which yields the opium of the 
Pharmacopoeia belongs to the genus Papaver, being placed in this 
genus with other species which have one or more essential character¬ 
istics in common. The genera Papaver, Sanguinaria and Cheli- 
donium, while differing from each other in certain essential respects, 
nevertheless agree in other particulars such as having latex, perfect 
flowers, capsular fruits, etc., and so are placed in the Papaveracece 
family. The Papaveracece family and the Fumariaceoe family are 
closely allied, the latter only differing from the former in having 
irregular petals, usually diadelphous stamens and non-oily albumen 
and so both of these families are placed in the order Papaverales. 
The orders Papaverales, Geraniales, Sapindales, Rhamnales, etc., are 


FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS 


3 


related by a common structure namely, two seed leaves or cotyledons 
and so are grouped together under the class Dicotyledonea. The 
Dicotyledoneoe differ from the Monocotyledonea in that the latter 
group possess but one cotyledon; but both classes agree in having 
covered ovules and seeds, and so are placed in the subdivision 
Angiospermce. The Angiospermce differ from the Gymnospermce in 
that the latter possess naked ovules and seeds; but both of these 
subdivisions agree in producing real flowers and seeds. For these 
reasons they are placed in the division Spermatophyta of the Vege¬ 
table Kingdom. 


OUTLINE OF PLANT GROUPS 


I. Thallophyta 


II. Bryophyta 


III. Pteridophyta 


1. Protophyta 

2. Myxomycetes 

3- Algas 

4. Fungi 

5. Liche.nes 

1. Hepaticae 

2. Musci 

1. Lycopodineae 

2. Equisetineae 

3. Filicineae 


f Bacteria 
1 Cyanophyceae 
[ Acrasiales 
Phytomyxales 
[ Myxogastrales 
[ Chlorophyceae 
| Phaeophyceae 
[ Rhodophyceae 
( Phycomycetes 
I Ascomycetes 
I Basidiomycetes 
l Fungi Imperfecti 
[ Crustaceous 
Foliaceous 
[ Fruticose 
f Marchantiales 
J Jungermanniales 
l Anthocerotales 
[ Sphagnales 
Andreaeales 
l Bryales 
Lycopodiales 
Selaginales 
. Isoetales 
{ Equisetales 
Ophioglossales 
Filicales 






4 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


IV. Spermatophyta 


2. Angiospermae j 


i. Gymnospermae 


Cycadales 

Ginkgoales 

Coniferales 

Gnetales 

| Monocotyledoneae 
1 Dicotyledoneae 


BOTANICAL NOMENCLATURE 


Before Carl von Linne, (Linnaeus) the great Sweedish naturalist, 
brought forth the binomial plan of nomenclature, no uniformity 
existed in the assignment of plant names. Among the pre-Linnean 
botanists there were some who designated plants by single names, 
others who employed sentences in naming them, some of which 
were quite lengthy, and a number who adhered to the practice bf 
naming them in their own modern tongue. The result was quite 
obvious, a number of systems were employed and confusion pre¬ 
vailed among students. According to the binomial plan which 
has been universally adopted, every plant belongs to a species which 
is given two Latin names. The first name is the name of the genus 
or generic name, the second, the name of the species or specific 
name. The generic name corresponds, in the naming of persons, 
to the surname or family name, while the specific name is analagous 
to the given name. Thus, the Wild Cherry is named Prunus 
serofyna, Prunus representing the name of the genus, serotina the 
specific name or kind of Prunus. The name of the genus (pi. genera) 
is always a substantive in the singular number and must not be 
applied to more than one genus. Its spelling should begin with a 
capital letter. Genera names may be taken from any source what¬ 
ever. Some, like Fagus for the Beech genus, and Acer for the Maple, 
are of Latin origin. Others have been latinized from other lan¬ 
guages. Some have been named after some therapeutic property, 
their roots, leaves, flowers or seeds were thought to possess; for 
example, Jateorhiza , a latinized compound of two greek words, 
iareLpa, healing, + ptfot, root, because of the healing virtues of the 
root. A number have had names ascribed to them because of some 
peculiarity of structure, color, taste, odor, behavior, habit or appear 
ance of the plant or portion thereof. 




FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS 


5 


Thus, Eriodictyon (from Gr. eptov, wool -\-8lktvov , net) alludes to 
its wooly, netted veined leaves; Melaleuca (from Gr. p.e\as, black, 
+XeuKos, white) alludes' to the black bark of the trunk and white 
bark of the branches; Marrubium (from Hebrew marrob, bitter) 
refers to its bitter sap; Barosma (from Gr. fiapvs, heavy + o<rprj> 
odor) in allusion to its strong smell; Epiphegus (from Gr. ext, upon, 
-\-<f>rjy 6 s, the beech) alludes to its growth on the roots of that tree; 
Impatiens (from Lat. in, not and patiens , enduring) refers to the 
sudden bursting of the capsules of this genus when touched; Lyco¬ 
podium (from Gr. Xu/cos, a wolf, + robs, a foot) pertains to the 
appearance of the shoots of this genus. Many have been named in 
honor of eminent naturalists or friends of these, or other noted 
persons. For example, Collinsonia was named in honor of Peter 
Collinson, an English botanist of the 18th century; Dioscorea in honor 
of Dioscorides, the Greek naturalist \Paullini a after Paullini, a German 
botanist of the 17th century; Cinchona in honor of the countess of 
Chinchon, who brought the bark to Europe in 1640 and Jejfersonia, 
in honor of Thomas Jefferson. 

The specific names are for the most part adjectives which agree with 
the names of genera to which they belong in case, gender, etc. They 
may, however,’ be nouns and in a few instances consist of two nouns 
or a noun and an adjective. If an adjective it should begin with a 
small letter, as in Rhus glabra and Euonymus atropurpureus. When 
the specific name is a noun, it may either be a proper noun in the 
genitive case when it should begin with a capital, as Garcinia Han- 
buryi ; or it may be a common noun in the genitive, when it should 
begin with a small letter, as Grindelia camporum; or the noun may 
be in apposition to the generic name and so in the same case, as 
Cytisus scoparius. Names that had formerly been used for genera 
but since reduced to species are always capitalized, whether origi¬ 
nally proper nouns or not, as Aristolochia Serpentaria and Anacyclus 
Pyrethrum. In cases where two nouns make up the specific name, 
the first of these is in the nominative case, the second in the genetive, 
the two names being connected by a hyphen, as Capsella burs a-pastor is. 
The botanical name of the species yielding the drug, Aspidosperma, 
(Aspidosperma Quebracho-bianco) will serve as an example of the 
specific portion of the names being composed of a noun and an ad- 


6 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


jective. Specific names taken from names of persons should always 
begin with a capital. 

Names of varieties are applied in three different ways. Either 
the name of the species is given and followed by the prefix var. 
before the varietal name, as Chenopodium ambrosioides var. anthel- 
minticum ; or the varietal name may be appended to the name of the 
species, as Chenopodium ambrosioides anthelminticum) or the varietal 
name may be placed immediately after the name of the genus and 
the specific name dropped, as Chenopodium anthelminticum. 

It frequently happens that a botanist is careless in naming a species, 
and, without ascertaining whether the same name has been assigned 
to another species, applies it to his, thus causing duplication. For 
example, there are two distinct species of plants named Prunus 
virginiana, one of these, the Wild Black Cherry, the other, the Choke 
Cherry. In this instance the name Prunus virginiana does not tell 
us which species the writer or speaker refers to. It might be the 
Choke Cherry named 11 Prunus virginiana ” by Linnaeus or the Wild 
Black Cherry named 11 Prunus virginiana ” by Miller at a later date. 
Accordingly, it is necessary to add to the name of the species the 
author’s name. Thus, Prunus virginiana Linne refers to the Choke 
Cherry while Prunus virginiana Miller refers to the Wild Black 
Cherry. In this connection it is customary to abbreviate the name 
of the author thus, L. for Linne, Mill, for Miller, Ait. for Aiton, 
Loisel. for Loiseleur-Deslongchamps, or Tourn. for Tournefort. 

Whenever a plant is transferred from one genus to another, it 
must retain its original specific name, unless the genus to which it 
is transferred already possesses a species with that name, in which 
case a new specific name must be given it. Moreover, the name of 
the botanist who assigned the original specific name but placed it 
under a different genus must be placed in parenthesis between the 
specific name and the name of the botanist who later connects it 
with another genus. For example, we read as the official definition 
for Purging Cassia in the National Formulary IV—“The dried fruit 
of Cathartocarpus Fistula (Linne) Persoon.” The significance of the 
name Linne in parenthesis is that he had previously given the specific 
name Fistula to the plant indicated but placed it under a different 
genus, which genus happened to be Cassia. Therefore Persoon, 


FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS 


7 


in connecting it up with another genus Carthartocarpus, avoided 
binomial duplication by interjecting Linne parenthetically between 
his name and the specific name Fistula. 

The names of families are designated by the name of one of their 
principal genera or ancient generic names with the ending aceae, e.g., 
Ranunculaceae from Ranunculus, Malvaceae from Malva, etc. The 
following names, because of long usage, are exceptions to the rule: 
Palmae, Gramineae,Guttiferae, Umbelliferae , Labiatae, and Compositae. 

Orders are generally designated by the name of one of their prin¬ 
cipal families, with the ending ales, e.g., Rhamnales from Rhamnaceae , 
Rosales from Rosaceae. Suborders are likewise designated, but with 
the ending—ineae, e.g., Malvineae from Malvaceae. Other older 
endings may, however, be retained for these names providing they 
do not lead to confusion or error. 

Names of classes, subclasses, divisions and subdivisions are desig¬ 
nated from one of their characters by words of Latin or Greek origin, 
some similarity of form and ending being given to those that desig¬ 
nate groups of the same nature, as Monocotyledoneae, Dicotyle- 
doneae; Archichlamydeae, Metachlamydeae; Thallophyta, Sperma- 
tophyta; Gymnospermae; Angiospermae. 

In the case of Cryptogams the use of old family names as Algae, 
Fungi, Lichens, Musci, etc. is permissible for designating groups 
above the rank of family. 

THE MICROSCOPE 

A microscope is an optical instrument, consisting of a lens, or 
combination of lenses, for making an enlarged image of an object 
which is too minute to be viewed by the naked eye. 

Microscopes are of two kinds, viz.: simple and compound. 

THE SIMPLE MICROSCOPE 

This consists simply of a convex lens or several combined into a 
system and appropriately mounted. A good example of a simple 
microscope is a reading glass. This type of simple microscope is 
valuable in field work, in the examination of dried herbarium ma¬ 
terial or the external characters of crude drugs, where only a low 
magnification of the object is required. 


8 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


But when flowers or other plant parts are to be dissected, it is 
necessary to have both hands free. To meet this need various 
forms of stands have been devised which have been combined with 
an arm and lens to constitute what are known as “Dissecting 
Microscopes.” One of the simpler forms of these is shown in Figs, 
i and 2. It consists of a low wooden stand with inclined sides that 
furnish convenient hand rests for the operator. In the center of 



Fig. i. —Front view of a dissecting microscope. Description in text. 



Fig. 2.—Rear view of same. 


the upper surface of the stand is a glass plate on which the object 
to be dissected is placed. Beneath this a mirror is set which reflects 
light to the object. On either side of the mirror is a hollow cut out 
which permits light to strike the mirror from various angles. A 
lens arm fits in an aperture just behind the center of the glass place. 
The carrier on the end of the horizontal portion of this accomo¬ 
dates the magnifier. The arm can be moved up and down or from 
side to side in securing a focus. The rear of the block is hollowed 
out, providing a convenient receptacle for dissecting tools. 







FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS 


9 


THE COMPOUND MICROSCOPE 

A. Its Construction: 

The principal parts of a compound microscope are: 

1. The base, generally horseshoe shaped, which rests on the table. 

2. The pillar, an upright bar, which is attached to the base below 
and supports the rest of the instrument. 

3. The stage, a horizontal shelf upon which is placed the prepara¬ 
tion or slide to be examined. The stage is perforated in the center 
for transmitting light reflected up by the mirror. On the stage are 
two clips for holding the glass slide. 

4. The mirror, situated below the stage, by which the light is 
reflected upward through the opening in the stage. 

5. The diaphragm, inserted in the opening of the stage or attached 
to its lower face, and used to regulate the amount of light reflected 
by the mirror. 

6. The body tube, a cylinder which holds the draw tube and lenses 
and moves up and down perpendicularly above the opening in the 
stage. The tube is raised or lowered either by sliding it back and 
forth with a twisting movement or by a rack and pinion mechanism. 
The latter is called the coarse adjustment. 

7. The jine adjustment, a micrometer screw back of the tube, 
which, on being turned, produces a very small motion of the entire 
framework which holds the body tube. 

8. The oculars or eyepieces which slip into the upper end of the 
draw tube . Each of these consist of two plano-convex lenses, the 
lower one being the larger and known as the jield lens because it 
increases the field of vision. The upper or smaller lens is called the 
eye lens. It magnifies the image formed by the objective. Midway 
between the field and eye lens is a perforated diaphragm, the object 
of which is to cut out edge rays from the image. 

According to the system adopted by the maker, oculars are desig¬ 
nated by numbers, as 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., or by figures which represent 
focal lengths. 

9. The objectives, which screw into the bottom of the body tube 
or nose piece. They consist of a system of two, three or four lenses, 
some of which are simple, others compounded of a convex crown 
lens and a concave flint lens. Objectives like oculars are usually 


IO 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


designated by numbers or by figures, as e t c -> or in milli¬ 

meters, as 2 mm., 4 mm., 16 mm., which represent focal lengths. 

The smaller the number or fraction representing the focal length 
of an objective, the greater is its magnifying power. 



Body Tube 


Graduated Short Slide - 
Devolving 

Stage- 

Adjustable 
Spring Finger 
Condenser Mounting on 

Drop Swing Arm.--' 

Lower Iris Diaphragm 
for Oblique Light. 

Stage Centering Screws 

Mirror- 

Mirrqir Forr> 

Mirror Bar 

Rack & Pinion 
Button 


-Rack & VInibn 
Coarse Adjustment 


Fine Adjustment 
Buttons 

Concentric Adjust 
Buttons 

Graduated Long 
Slide 

-Arm 
Inclination Joint 


Horseshoe 

-Base 


-Draw- Tube 


Fig. 3.—Illustrating the parts of a compound microscope. 


Objectives are either dry lenses or immersion lenses. If an air 
space be present between the objective and the object, the lens is 
called a dry one; if a liquid is present between the objective and the 
object, the lens is called an immersion lens. If this liquid be oil, 










FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS 


II 



Fig. 4. —Diagram illustrating optics of a compound microscope in use. Fi, 
Upper focal plane of objective; F2, Lower focal plane of eyepiece; A, Optical tube 
length = distance between Fi and F2; Oi, object; O2, real image in F2, trans¬ 
posed by the collective lens, to O3, real image in eyepiece diaphragm; O4, virtual 
image formed at the projection distance C, 250 mm. from EP, eyepoint; CD, 
condenser diaphragm; L, mechanical tube length (160 mm.); 1, 2, 3, three pencils 
of parallel light coming from different points of a distant illuminant, for instance, 
a white cloud, which illuminate three different points of the object. (Courtesy 
of Bausch and Lomb Optical Co.) 













































































12 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


the objective is called an oil immersion objective; if water, a water 
immersion objective. 

Some microscopes are fitted up with a nose piece , capable of carry¬ 
ing two or three objectives, which may be revolved into place at the 



Fig. 5. Fig. 6. 

Fig. 5.—Microscope lamp useful in illuminating opaque objects. 

Fig. 6'.—Compound microscope with binocular body, designed to relieve 
eyestrain for those spending many hours with the microscope. Each oculai 
inclines at an angle of 4 degrees from the perpendicular, which results in their 
converging to a point about 17 inches from eyes having the average pupillary 
separation. Adjustment for pupillary distance is accomplished by turning 
a knurled ring on the right hand ocular tube which gives a horizontal sliding 
movement of the oculars. The knurled ring on the left hand ocular tube pro¬ 
vides a means of focusing one eyepiece independently of the other. (Made by 
Spencer Lens Co.) 


lower end of the body tube. Others have a condenser which is 
employed to concentrate the light upon the object examined. 

B. Its use: 

1. Place the microscope on the table with the pillar nearest you. 

2. Screw the objectives into the nose piece and slip an ocular into 
the upper end, if not already on instrument. Turn the lowest power 
objective into position. 


FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS 


13 


3. Find the light by looking into the ocular (eye piece) and at the 
same time turning the mirror at such an angle that it reflects light 
from the window or lamp up through the opening in the stage to 
the objective. When opaque objects are to be illuminated, a 
stronger illumination is required than that usually afforded by an 
ordinary laboratory lamp or by the light from a window. For this 
purpose a microscope lamp, such as the Spencer no. 374 (see Fig. 
5) is very satisfactory. Mirrors have two faces, a plane and a con¬ 
cave. Use the concave unless employing the condenser, when the 
plane mirror should always be used. 

4. Regulate the quantity of light by the diaphragm. If too bright 
it must be cut off somewhat. The higher powers require brighter 
light than the lower. 

5. Place the slide on the stage in a horizontal position with the 
object pver the middle of the opening through which light is thrown 
from the mirror. 

6. With the lower power in position, move the coarse adjustment 
until either the object or small solid particles on the slide appear 
distinctly, which means that the lenses are in focus. The object, 
if not under the lens, may now be brought into the field by moving 
the slide back and forth very slowly while looking through the ocular. 
To improve the focus, slowly turn the fine adjustment screw. 

7. To focus with the high-power objective, first find the object 
with the low power and arrange in the center of the field. Put clips 
on slide without moving it. Raise the body tube by means of the 
coarse adjustment. Then turn the high-power objective into posi¬ 
tion. (If two objectives only accompany your instrument, the high- 
power is the longer one.) Lower the body tube carrying the objec¬ 
tive until the objective front lens nearly touches the cover glass. 
A slight movement of the fine adjustment should show the object 
clearly. Never focus down with the high-power objective while 
looking through the ocular because of the danger of pressing it into 
the cover glass and ruining the delicately mounted lenses. 

8. Accustom yourself to use both eyes indifferently and always 
keep both eyes open. If right handed, observe with the left eye, 
as it is more convenient in making drawings. 

9. When the oil immersion objective is to be used, a small drop of 


i4 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


immersion oil (slightly evaporated cedar oil) should be placed on the 
cover glass directly above the object and the body tube should be 
run down with the coarse adjustment until the front lens of the 
immersion objective enters the drop and comes almost into contact 
with the cover glass. This should be done while watching the objec¬ 
tive. Then look through the ocular and draw the objective up with 
the fine adjustment until the object comes into focus. 

RULES FOR THE CARE OF THE MICROSCOPE 

1. In carrying the microscope to or from your table, grasp it 
firmly by the pillar and hold in an erect position, so that the ocular 
which is fitted loosely into the draw tube may not fall out and its 
lenses become damaged. 

2. Never allow the objective to touch the cover glass or the liquid 
in which the object is mounted. 

3. Never touch the objective or ocular lenses with fingers of cloths. 

4. Never change from lower to higher power objective without 
first ascertaining that the body tube has been raised sufficiently to 
allow the high power objective to be slipped into place without 
injury to the objective or mounts. 

5. Never clean the microscope lenses or stand with cloths that 
have been used for removing surplus of alkali, acid or other reagent 
from slides. 

6. Note whether the front lens of the objective is clean before 
attempting to use it. If soiled, breathe on the lens and gently wipe 
with an old, clean, soft handkerchief or lens paper. If the lens be 
soiled with balsam or some other sticky substance, moisten the 
handkerchief or lens paper with a drop of xylol, taking care to wipe 
it perfectly dry as soon as possible. 

7. Do not let the objective remain long near corrosive liquids, 
such as strong solutions of iodine, corrosive sublimate, or mineral 
acids. Never examine objects lying in such fluids without putting 
on a cover glass. 

8. Never lift the slide from the stage, but, after raising the objec¬ 
tive, slide it off the stage without upward movement. 

9. Never allow the stand (microscope without lenses) to be wetted 
with such substances as alcohol, soap, etc., which dissolve lacquer. 

10. Keep the microscope covered when not in use. 


FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS 


15 


MAKING OF SECTIONS 

Free-hand Sectioning. —Free-hand sections are usually satisfactory 
for the general examination of roots, stems, leaves^, barks and many 
fruits and seeds. Material which is fresh may be sectioned at once, 
but dry material should be well soaked in warm water before using. 
Very hard material like heartwoods, the shells of nuts and seeds, 
may be softened in solution of caustic potash or ammonia water 
and then washed free of alkali before sectioning. 

The object to be sectioned is held between the thumb and finger 
of the left hand. If tender and flexible, such as a flat leaf, it must 
be placed between the two flat surfaces of elder pith before sec¬ 
tioning. A segment of pith about an inch long is halved lengthwise 
with a sharp knife and a portion of the leaf is held between the halves 
of pith while the section is cut through pith and leaf. The pith 
is later separated from the leaf section. Sections through other 
delicate parts of plants may be made in the same way, only a groove 
should be made in the pith of such size as is necessary to hold the 
material firmly enough without crushing it. In certain instances, 
when, because of the smallness of the object and its resistance to 
cutting, good sections can not readily be made with the aid of pith, 
a small sized cork stopper can be used with better results. A hole 
just large enough to prevent the object from slipping is made in the 
center of the smaller end and the object inserted preparatory to 
sectioning. The upper surface of the razor is wetted with water or 
50 per cent, alcohol. The razor, which should be real sharp, is held 
in the right hand and is drawn across the o'bject with the edge toward 
the student and the blade sliding on th£ forefinger of the left hand. 
The sections should be cut as thin as possible. As soon as a number 
of sections have been cut, they can be transferred to a vessel of water 
with a camel’s hair brush. 

Sectioning in Paraffine or Celloidin .—When it is necessary to study 
the microscopic structure of very delicate plant parts, superior results 
can generally be obtained by imbedding the material in paraffine 
or celloidin, which is subsequently hardened, and sectioned by means 
of a sliding or rotary microtome. 


16 PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 

KINDS OF SECTIONS 

1. A transverse or cross-section is one made horizontally through 
the object, hence its plane lies at right angles to the long axis. 

2. A radial-longitudinal section is one which is made parallel to 
the long axis of the object in such a way 
that it lies in plane of the radius. 

3. A tangential-longitudinal section is one 
made parallel to a plane tangent to the 
cylinder. This type of section is therefore 
prepared by cutting parallel to the outer 
long surface. 

MICROTOMES 

Microtomes are instruments employed to 
facilitate the cutting of sections of organic 
tissues. The three most commonly used 
types are the hand, sliding and rotary 
microtomes. 

Hand Microtome. —This type is shown in 
Fig. 8. If the object is sufficiently hard to 
bear the strain, it is placed directly in a 
clamp at the upper end of the tube that is 
tightened by the screw seen on the side of 
the tube, or it may first be inclosed in elder 
pith or cork and then clamped in. The 
object to be sectioned is raised a little at a 
time through the hole in the glass plate at 
the *top by turning the finely graduated feed 
near the base of the tube. The section razor 
is then laid flat on the glass plate and pulled 
across the object with a long sliding motion. 
The upper surface of the razor blade is kept wet with 50 per cent, 
alcohol and after several sections have been cut they can be swept 
by the finger or camels hair pencil to a dish of water. Each 
division of the feed represents 10 microns, so that the thickness of 
sections desired can be regulated by moving the feed, accordingly, 
just before each stroke of the razor. 




Fig. 7.—Showing the 
planes in which sections 
are cut, A, transversely; 

B. longitudinal radially; 

C, longitudinal tangen¬ 
tially.. ( After Stevens.) 







FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS 


17 



Sliding Microtome .—This type of microtome (see Fig. 9) is adapted 
for cutting all kinds of sections. It consists of an iron supporting 
fame of horizontal and upright portions. The horizontal base rests 
on the table and is hollowed out to accommodate a drip pan that 
can readily be removed and cleaned. 

The front of the upright portion exhibits a frame which accomo¬ 
dates a sliding feed mechanism to which is attached the object 

carrier. The top of the upright portion 
shows a V shaped bed which carries a 
solid iron block which can be readily 
slid along the bed when the latter is 
lubricated with paraffin oil. The upper 
surface of the block is grooved to ac¬ 
comodate the thumb screw. The 
microtome knife consists of a blade 


Fig. 8.^ —Hand microtome. Fig. 9. —A sliding microtome. Blade (a); lever 
Description in text. (b). (From McJunkin.) 


portion, that is flat on its lower and hollow ground on its upper 
face, and a forked handle. The latter is slid into the stem of the 
thumb screw which has previously been slid into the groove of 
the block and its position adjusted. Sections of woody material 
can be cut directly on this microtome and placed in dilute alcohol. 
When paraffine sections are cut, the cutting edge of the knife 
should be parallel to the motion but when celloidin sections are 
desired the knife must be set at an oblique angle to the frame 
and drawn across the block with a long sliding motion. The knife 













i8 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


\ 



Fig. io. —Rotary microtome. The feed mechanism is covered to protect the 

wearing parts from dust. 

















































































































FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS 


19 


and the top of the celloidin block must be constantly kept wet with 
80 per cent, alcohol. 

The object is placed in the object carrier and clamped in. By 
means of the graduated disk at the base of the feed mechanism the 
thickness, in terms of microns, is regulated after each stroke of the 
razor. 

Rotary Microtome .—When paraffin ribbons are desired, especially 
for the study of serial sections pf material, the rotary microtome 
surpasses by far the efficiency of the sliding type of instrument. The 
Spencer Rotary Microtome No. 820 is shown in Fig. 10 and its 
plan of construction illustrated in Fig. n. In this instrument the 
sliding part which carries the object clamp (SP) is carried up and 
down by the block (B). The feed mechanism consists of a rigid 
bearing, on which the feed block (FB) (of which the projection P is 
a part), is moved by the feed screw (FS). As this block travels to¬ 
ward the side on which the balance wheel (W) is located, the sliding 
part (SP) is forced forward towards the knife one-half as much. The 
polished surface set against the point (P) is arranged at the proper 
angle to accomplish this end. The screw, cut with two threads to 
the millimeter, is revolved by a ratchet feed wheel with 250 teeth. 
Each tooth represents a forward movement of the object of one mi¬ 
cron. The feed can be set for sections from 1 micron to 60 microns 
thick, by turning the button at the back of the case until the number, 
representing the desired thickness, appears opposite the indicator at 
the small opening in the side of the case near the balance wheel. 
The total excursion of the feed is 37 mm. This allows a sufficient 
range for cutting a complete series of sections of a large object with¬ 
out the necessity of a break due to resetting the knife and feed me¬ 
chanism. The object, after being placed in the object clamp, may 
be oriented to any desired angle. The clamp is held at its upper 
limit for orienting or trimming the block by pushing in the pin (F.) 
The whole knife support may readily be adjusted to and from the 
object, and is readily clamped in any location by a lever connected 
with an eccentric cam. The knife is fastened by two clamps and 
may be turned to any desired angle. The clamps can also be moved 
toward each other to bring them as near to the ribbon as desired to 
gain additional rigidity. The groove in the balance wheel is de- 


20 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


signed for a cord or strap when it is desired to run the instrument 
by a motor. 

THE TECHNIQUE OF MAKING A TEMPORARY MOUNT 

1. Place a drop or two of water (or reagent) in the center of a clean 
glass slide. _ 

2. With the aid of a forceps take the section or very small quantity 
of the material to be examined and spread it on the drop of water. 

3. Place a clean cover-glass over the material. In placing the 
cover-glass do not drop it flat upon the drop of water, but place one 
side of it down first and allow it to squeeze the water along under it. 

4. Keep the top of the cover-glass dry. 

When filamentous algae or molds are to be examined, the material 
tends to cling together and must be carefully separated, in the drop 
of water, with dissection needles before the cover glass is placed over 
the material. In case a coarse ground drug is to be mounted the 
coarser particles should be first crushed in the water on the slide 
and subsequently teased apart with dissection needles. 

Care should’ always be taken to see that the water or mounting 
medium used is not contaminated with foreign substances. This 
can best be practiced by examining the mounting medium under the 
microscope before the material to be examined is placed in it. 

THE TECHNIQUE OF MAKING PERMANENT MOUNTS 

1. The Mounting Medium .—When a microscopic object is to be 
preserved permanently it must be kept from decaying and the fluid 
in which it is placed must be kept from evaporating. These condi¬ 
tions can be met by adding an antiseptic (2 per cent, acetic acid, or 
formaldehyde) to the water used in rfiounting and carefully sealing 
the cover glass with asphaltum or zinc white. As a rule, a better 
way is to use a mounting medium that will not evaporate, e.g ., 
glycerine, glycerin gelatin or Canada balsam. These fluids have 
a high refractive index and so render the objects penetrated by them 
more transparent. This quality is generally an advantage, but for 
objects already almost transparent it is quite the reverse. Glycerine 
has the disadvantage of always remaining soft, so that the mount 
may at any time be spoiled by careless handling. Glycerin-gelatin 


FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS 


21 


has the advantage of mixing readily with 50 per cent, glycerin in 
which the object should be placed before being mounted in this 
medium. It should be warmed on a water bath before using and the 
cover glass applied quickly after it is placed on the specimen. It 
cools rapidly and constitutes the quickest and simplest means of 
effecting a durable permanent mount. Its disadvantage is due 
mainly to its jelly like consistency which is frequently responsible 
for damaged mounts when the cover glass above the preparation is 
too greatly strained. Canada balsam, slowly becomes solid, so 
that the mount is exposed to no accident short of actual breakage. 
Balsam has the disadvantage of being non-miscible with water, so 
that before it can be used the object must be carefully dehydrated. 
Even after this is done, and the object lying in absolute alcohol, an 
oil must be used as an intermediate agent between alcohol and 
balsam. 

2. Staining .—For two reasons it is generally better to stain plant 
tissues before mounting. Transparent tissues may become almost 
invisible in glycerine, glycerin-gelatin, or balsam, and different 
tissues take a stain differently. This being the case it becomes 
possible to stain one tissue and not another, or one tissue with one 
stain and another in the same section with a different stain, so that 
the different parts may be brought out like areas on a colored map. 
The most common stains are haematoxylin derived from logwood, and 
various anilin stains—safranin, fuchsin, eosin, iodine green, methyl- 
green, malachite green, etc. 


METHOD FOR THE PREPARATION OF A CANADA BALSAM MOUNT 

1. Stain object with 0.5 per cent, solution of safranin or fuchsin 
in 50 per cent, alcohol for from three to five minutes. 

2. Wash out excess of stain and further dehydrate with 70 per 
cent, alcohol. , 

3. Stain with 0.5 per cent, solution of methyl-green, or malachite 
green, or iodine-green in 70 per cent, alcohol for twenty seconds or 
longer, depending upon the nature of the material. 

4. Dehydrate and wash out excess of stain with 95 per cent, alcohol 
for two minutes. 


22 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


5. Further dehydrate by placing material in absolute alcohol for 
one minute. 

6. Clear in cedar oil for 1 minute. Blot up excess from around 
edge of section. 

7. Mount in Canada balsam. 

8. Label slide. 

Should air-bubbles be detected in the balsam shortly after mount¬ 
ing, heat a dissection needle in a flame and touch each with its tip, 
when they will be found to disappear. 

If too much Canada balsam has been used, some of it usually 
spreads beyond the edge of the cover-glass, or on its surface. In 
this event wait until the balsam hardens, when it can be scratched 
off with a knife, and the surface of the glass cleaned with a rag 
moistened with turpentine oil or xylol. 

Should the Canada balsam become too thick, it can be thinned 
down with either xylol or benzol. 


METHOD FOR THE PREPARATION OF A GLYCERIN-GELATIN MOUNT 

1. Stain object with an aqueous solution of eosin. 

2. Wash out excess of stain by moving the section about in a 
dish of water. 

3. Transfer object to weak glycerin (glycerin 10 parts, water 
90 parts) for 3 to 5 minutes. 

4. Transfer object to 50 per cent, glycerin for 3 to 5 minutes. 

5. Transfer object to concentrated glycerin for 5 minutes. 

6. Remove excess of glycerin around object and mount in glycerin- 
gelatin. The slide and cover slip should be warmed before the 
glycerin-gelatin is dropped over the object and the cover slip quickly 
lowered. The preparation of Glycerin-Gelatin is as follows: Mac¬ 
erate 14 grams of gelatin in 84 mils of water for 2 hours, add 76 mils 
of glycerin and warm; add 2 mils of liquefied, phenol, warm and 
stir for 15 minutes until clear. Filter while hot through glass- 
wool or filter paper and collect the filtrate in a wide mouthed bottle. 
Keep well stoppered so as to exclude dust. 

Glycerin-Gelatin becomes solid when cool. For use warm the 
bottle in a water bath after first removing the stopper. A glass rod 


FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS 


23 

sufficiently long to reach to the bottom of the bottle can be inserted 
in the cork and used for transferring the material to the slide. 

7. Ring mount with zinc white or asphaltum at the edge of cover 
slip. If the cover slip is circular, this can best be done by means 
of a centering turn-table. A camel’s hairbrush is dippedinto the zinc 
white or asphaltum and held to the margin of the cover slip while 
the slide fastened with clips to the turn table, is rotated with it. 

8. Label slide. 

If the objects or sections are such as not to be liable to shrink they can 
be transferred from water directly to glycerin-gelatin. 

TECHNIQUE OF FIXING, DEHYDRATING, HARDENING AND IMBED¬ 
DING IN PARAFFIN 

When the intention is to study the protoplasts in their natural 
form or the processes of cell division, the fresh material must be 
put through the various stages of fixation, hardening and imbedding 
before it is sectioned. The steps will now be considered in the order 
in which they must be carried out. 

Fixation .—This is the process of killing and coagulating the proto¬ 
plast. The essence of good fixation is in rapid killing. It should be 
simultaneous with coagulation or hardening so that the protoplast 
will not be modified by later treatment. Fixing fluids are always 
substances unknown to protoplasm e.g. poisons. The coagulation 
of protoplasmic structures is due to the fact that these are alkaline 
in reaction whereas the fixing fluid is acid. Fixing fluids must be 
judged not only as to killing and hardening but also as to reaction 
of tissues to stains afterward. Fluids that are mixtures make the 
best fixing agents. Among the fixing agents employed are the fol¬ 
lowing: Osmic acid (OsCL) comes in sealed glass tubes containing 
0.5 gm. or 1 gm. It has a very powerful odor and is easily affected 
by organic materials. It is used in 1 to 2 per cent, solutions and 
should be made up in distilled water. It fixes cytoplasm well but 
the nucleus not as good. Its disadvantage lies in its inability to 
penetrate rapidly. 

Chromic acid (Cr 0 3 ) in 0.5 to 1 per cent, aqueous solution is very 
favorable for nuclear structure but like osmic acid penetrates rather 
slowly. Picric acid C 6 H 2 (0H)(N02)3 is one of the most penetrating 


24 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


fixing fluids but has very little hardening power. It is employed 
in saturated aqueous solution. 

Corrosive sublimate (HgCb) in 0.2 per cent, aqueous or alcoholic 
solution penetrates and hardens rapidly but doesn’t give as sharp opti¬ 
cal differentiation as the others considered. 

Absolute alcohol can be employed for very small objects that are 
dry. If the objects are moist shrinkage will follow. 

Carnoy fluid, consisting of 6 parts absolute alcohol, 3 parts 
formaldehyde and 1 part of glacial acetic acid, can also be used for 
fixing small objects. It has the advantage of fixing these in about 
10 minutes. Moreover the objects can be carried directly to abso¬ 
lute alcohol, thence to Paraffin and imbedded. 

For most materials the Flemming fluids have proven very satis¬ 
factory and are the most generally employed. They are of two 
classes, viz; 1. Those that simply involve chromic acid and acetic 
acid (the chrome-acetic fluids) and 2. Those that involve chromic 
acid, acetic acid and osmic acid (the Chrome-Osmium-Acetic Fluids). 
The formulae follow: 


Strong 


Medium 


Weak 


CHROME-ACETIC FLUIDS 

{ 1 per cent. Chromic acid solution... 
| Glacial acetic acid. 

I 1 per cent. Chromic acid solution. . 

1 per cent. Glacial acetic acid. 

[ Distilled water. 

1 1 per cent. Chromic acid solution. . 

1 per cent. Glacial acetic acid. 

Distilled water. 


CHROME-OSMIUM-ACETIC FLUIDS 

I 1 per cent. Chromic acid solution. 

Strong | 2 per cent. Osmic acid solution. 

( Glacial acetic acid. 

1 per cent. Chromic acid solution. 

Tir , 1 per cent. Osmic acid solution. 

1 per cent. Acetic acid solution. 

Distilled water. 


100 mils 
1 mil 

70 mils 
1 mil 
29 mils 

25 mils 
10 mils 
65 mils 

75 mils 
20 mils 
5 mils 

25 mils 
10 mils 
10 mils 
55 mils 


















FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS 


25 


The acetic acid in all of the Flemming fluids is of great advantage 
since it penetrates very rapidly, carrying the chromic acid or chromic 
and osmic acids into the tissue depths, thus insuring complete 
fixation. 

The material to be fixed should be cut into small pieces not longer 
than 5 mm. nor broader than 2 or 3 mm. The amount of fixation 
to be used should not be less than 15 times the bulk of the material 
to be fixed. The material should be placed in the fixing fluid im¬ 
mediately after it is gathered. One or two drachm homepathic 
phials are convenient for the process. The material is kept in the 
fixing fluid for from 12 to 24 hours and then washed in small cheese 
cloth bags which are placed in running tap water for from 6 to 12 
hours or over night. 

Dehydrating and Hardening. —After washing the material, still 
kept in the bags, is placed in 10 per cent, alcohol for 1 hour and is 
then carried through a series of alcohols. Each of the series 10 
per cent stronger than the one before it, remaining in each grade for 
1 to 2 hours until 70 per cent, alcohol is reached. Take out of 
bag and place in phial in 70 per cent, alcohol. If the material is 
not to be imbedded in paraffine immediately, it can remain in 70 per 
cent, or 85 per cent, alcohol (if very delicate) until needed. It is 
not safe to leave very valuable material in a grade below 70 per cent, 
over night. From the 70 per cent, alcohol it is carried to 85 per 
cent, to 95 per cent, to absolute alcohol, remaining in each at least 
6 hours with 2 or 3 changes of the last. 

Clearing and Imbedding. —In order to get the material from ab¬ 
solute alcohol into paraffine, some medium must be used which mixes 
with absolute alcohol and which also dissolves paraffine. Either oils 
such as cedar, clove or bergamot or substances like xylol, chloroform 
or benzol satisfy this requirement. To clear with xylol—transfer 
material from absolute alcohol to a mixture of % absolute alcohol and 
M xylol for 12 hours, then to mixture of equal parts of absolute 
alcohol and xylol for 12 hours, then to % xylol and absolute 
alcohol for 12 hours to pure xylol for 12 hours. To phial containing 
material in pure xylol add paraffine in small pieces and put on top of 
paraffine bath sufficiently long until paraffine is melted. Then add 
more paraffine and put phial in paraffine bath at]56°C. over night. 


26 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Pour fluid off and add pure melted paraffine and repeat 2 or 3 times 
until rid of all trace of xylol. A tray is then prepared by taking a 
piece of paper and folding up its edges all around to the height of 
about a half inch. Half fill this on a cool surface with melted para¬ 
ffine. Heat two dissection needles in bunsen flame and with these 
dispose pieces of material in orderly fashion over, the crust which has 
by this time formed at the bottom of the tray. Blow upon the sur¬ 
face of the paraffine to harden it more quickly and as soon as the 
surface crust will bear it, plunge the tray into cold water. The 
material can now be left imbedded in paraffine until required for 
sectioning. 

If cutting is to be done in a cool room, softer grades of paraffine 
with melting points between 40° and 5o°C. should be used for 
imbedding. If on the other hand cutting is to be done at summer 
temperatures, the harder grades melting at between 55 0 and yo°C. 
should be employed. 

TECHNIQUE OF SECTIONING AND MOUNTING MATERIAL IMBEDDED 
IN PARAFFINE 

Strip off the paper tray from the imbedded material and cut out a 
block of paraffine containing the object which is to be sectioned, 
taking care to include at least 2 or 3 mm. of paraffine on all sides 
beyond the specimen. Take a segment of pine wood about an inch 
long and with a surface at one end about % in. square and coat the 
square area with melted paraffine. Warm the paraffine on the piece 
of pine wood and quickly press the paraffine block containing the 
specimen into this melted paraffine in the desired position for cutting. 
Heat a dissecting needle and apply this all around the base so that 
the paraffine block is firmly sealed to the wood. Dip paraffine block 
in cold water to harden. Now trim the paraffine block with a sharp 
scalpel so that the faces form right angles with each other. Adjust 
the wood in the clamp of the microtome and the microtome blade 
so that the top of the paraffine block just touches the near surface 
of the microtome knife. Make certain that the knife edge and the 
two opposite faces of the paraffine block are perfectly parallel. Now 
trim the remaining two sides of the block close to the object. Adjust 
the automatic feed of the rotary microtome by moving dial to num- 


FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS 


27 


ber on scale representing thickness in microns desired of sections and 
turn wheel of microtome.. It will be observed that the carrier moves 
up and down and with each downward movement slightly forward, 
causing the knife to cut s’ections which adhere in ribbons. 

Transfer the ribbons by means of a camel’s hair pencil or dissecting 
needle to a piece of dust free paper with the side downward which was 
next to the knife. The ribbons are now ready to be mounted on 
slides. 

The slides to be used should only be those which are devoid of 
grease or dirt of any kind particularly on the surface upon which 
the ribbons are to be mounted. A very good plan is to keep a number 
of slides intended for this purpose submerged in a saturated solution 
of potassium dichromate in concentrated sulphuric acid. These 
can be taken out as needed and thoroughly rinsed with water. 

With a clean cloth stretched over the forefinger vigorously rub 
one surface of each slide until perfectly dry and free of lint. Then 
place a small drop of Mayer’s albumin fixative on clean surface and 
rub over the surface. (The formula for Mayer’s Albumin Fixative 
is as follows: Egg white and Glycerin, equal parts, Carbolic acid 
1 or 2 drops. Mix thoroughly.) Now flood the surface with water 
and cut the ribbons into segments of the desired length and arrange 
in rows on slide, being careful to have the segments somewhat 
shorter than the length of the cover slip because of tendency of 
paraffine to stretch when warmed. Warm slide gently by holding 
high above a bunsen flame or flame of an alcohol lamp until ribbons 
stretch out in smooth fashion. Absorb superflous water from be¬ 
neath ribbons with blotting paper held to their edges and at same 
time push the sections into even rows. Then leave the sections to 
dry for several hours or over night. 

METHOD FOR THE STAINING AND MOUNTING OF MATERIAL IN 
PARAFFINE RIBBONS AFFIXED TO SLIDE 

1. Gently heat the dry slides with paraffine ribbons adhering to 
the fixative, high above the Bunsen flame (with the ribbon side up). 

2. Place the slide upright in a well of xylol or turpentine. The 
xylol or turpentine will dissolve the melted paraffine in a minute 
or two. 


28 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


3. Take the slide out of the well, wipe off the under side and allow 
a stream of 95 per cent, alcohol to run over the upper side from a 
pipette. 

4. Place the slide upright in a well of safranin for from four to 
twenty-four hours. 

5. Take the slide out of the safranin well and extract excess of 
stain with 57 per cent, alcohol. 

6. Place the slide in a well of gentian violet or methyl-green for a 
second or more. The time varies for different objects and can only 
be determined by trial. 

7. Rinse slide with 70 per cent, alcohol from pipette. 

8. Pour absolute alcohol over sections, follow with a few drops of 
clove oil, replace clove oil with cedar oil. 

9. Mount in balsam. 

10. Label slide. 


IMBEDDING IN CELLOIDIN 

Whenever material is unsuited for free hand sectioning and will 
not give good results when imbedded in paraffine on account of size, 
hardness, or brittleness, celloidin may be resorted to as an imbedding 
medium. 

The technique employed is similar to that of the paraffine method 
so far as the preliminary fixing, hardening and dehydrating are con¬ 
cerned up to and including the 95 per cent, alcohol stage. From this 
point the various succeeding steps in the procedure are as follows: 

1. Place material in equal parts of 95 per cent, alcohol and ether 
(known as ether-alcohol) for several hours. 

2. Transfer to a 2 per cent, solution of celloidin in ether-alcohol, 
for 2-5 days. 

3. Transfer to a 6 per cent, solution of celloidin in ether-alcohol, 
for 2-5 days. 

4. Transfer to a 12 per cent, solution of celloidin in ether-alcohol, 
for 3-10 days. 

5. Prepare a pine block sufficiently large in cross section to sup¬ 
port the material and otherwise adapted to its being clamped in the 
object carrier of the microtome. Soak one end of this block in 


FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS 


29 


ether-alcohol for a while and then dip it in the 2 per cent, celloidin 
solution. 

6. Take the material from the thick celloidin and set it in proper 
position, for cutting the sections desired, on the prepared end of 
the block and allow the celloidin to thicken for a few seconds only. 

7. Dip the celloidin end into the thick solution; remove and hold 
upright so that the new coating may spread out over the end of the 
block and solidify the union. 

8. As soon as the celloidin has hardened a little to form a surface 
film, drop the preparation into a vessel of chloroform and allow to 
remain here 1 day. 

9. Transfer preparation to a vessel containing equal parts of 
glycerin and 95 per cent, alcohol until required for sectioning. 

SECTIONING CELLOIDIN MATERIAL 

Clamp the block in the sliding microtome and set the knife 
obliquely so that the sections can be cut with a long sliding stroke. 
Keep the knife and top of the block wet with the alcohol-glycerin 
mixture and as soon as the sections are cut, sweep them with a 
camels hair pencil into a dish of 70 per cent, alcohol. The sections 
can be attached to a slide by placing the slide in a closed chamber 
over ether. The ether vapor dissolves the celloidin and causes the 
sections to adhere to the slide. 

STAINING AND MOUNTING CELLOIDIN SECTIONS 

1. Place sections in safranin solution for 1 day. This safranin 
solution should be made by dissolving as much safranin in 95 per 
cent, alcohol as it will take up and then diluting with an equal 
quantity of water. 

2. Rinse sections in 50 per cent, alcohol to remove excess of stain. 

3. Transfer them to Delafield’s haematoxylin (made by dissolving 
1 gram of haematoxylin in 6 mils of absolute alcohol and adding 
this gradually to 100 mils of a saturated aqueous solution of ammonia 
alum. This is left exposed for a week, filtered, 25 mils each of 
methyl alcohol and glycerin added, allowed to stand 6 hours, again 
filtered, and ripened about 2 months before using) for 10 minutes. 


30 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


3. Rinse sections thoroughly first in water, then in 35 per cent, 
alcohol, then in 50 per cent, alcohol. 

4. Put them quickly through acid alcohol (1 drop of HC 1 in 50 
mils of 70 per cent alcohol). 

5. Transfer to 70 per cent, alcohol for about 2 minutes. 

6. Transfer to 85 per cent, alcohol for about 2 minutes. 

7. Transfer to 95 per cent, alcohol for about 2 minutes. 

8. Transfer to absolute alcohol for about 2 minutes. 

9. Clear sections in a mixture of equal parts of cedar oil and phenol 
for at least 2 minutes. 

10. Remove excess of clearing solution and mount in balsam. 

11. Label slide. 

DESILICIFICATION OF HARD WOODY MATERIALS 

It frequently happens, even after prolonged maceration or boiling 
in alkaline solutions, that thin sections of hard roots, stems, woods or 
fruits are difficult or impossible to procure. This is due to the pres¬ 
ence of deposits of silica and other mineral substances that usually 
occur in woody tissues. Therefore, it is of prime importance that 
these substances be removed as thoroughly as possible. For this 
purpose a 10 per cent, aqueous solution of commercial Hydrofluoric 
Acid (or stronger solutions up to the pure acid for very* hard ma¬ 
terials) is most useful. Small fruits or short segments of other hard 
materials are placed in this acid (which should be kept in a bottle 
coated internally with a thick layer of paraffine) for from 3 days to a 
week, depending on the size of the objects, with one or two changes 
of the acid. The acid is then washed out thoroughly with running 
water for 2 to 5 hours. This treatment completely frees the tissues 
of all mineral deposits without affecting the organic structure. 

SCHULZE’S MACERATION PROCESS 

This method is employed for the separation of cells. Radial- 
longitudinal sections, that may be cut with a pen knife, are placed in 
a beaker or test tube containing 50 mils of nitric acid of specific 
gravity 1.3 (about 2 volumes of nitric acid and 1 volume of water 
will serve purpose). To this add 1 gram of chlorate of potash 
crystals and heat gently until the reddish color which first appears 


FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS 


31 


in the tissues^ has disappeared. Stop the action by pouring the 
whole of the contents into a vessel containing water and wash 
well with water. The cells can now be readily separated with 
dissection needles and mounted in water for examination. Do not 
mount in glycerine, for it makes the already bleached elements too 
transparent. 


MICROMETRY 

The unit of length used in microscopic measurement is the micron 
(jit) which is one-thousandth part of a millimeter (0.001 mm.) or one 
twenty-five thousandth part of an inch. 

In measuring microscopic objects it is necessary to make use of 
a micrometer of some kind. That pretty generally used is the 
ocular micrometer. It is a circle of glass suitable for insertion 
within the ocular with a scale etched on its surface. The scale is 
divided to tenths of a millimeter (0.1 mm.) or the entire surface 
of the glass may be etched with squares (0.1 mm.), the net 
micrometer. 

STANDARDIZATION OF OCULAR MICROMETER 

The value of each division of the ocular micrometer scale must be 
ascertained for each optical combination (ocular, objective, and 
tube length) by the aid of a stage micrometer. 

The stage micrometer is a slide with a scale engraved on it divided 
to hundredths of a millimeter (0.01 mm.), in some cases to tenths 
of a millimeter (0.1 mm.), every tenth line being made longer than 
intervening ones, to facilitate counting. 

Method : 

1. Insert the ocular micrometer within the tube of the ocular by 
placing it on the diaphragm of the ocular, and adjust the stage 
micrometer by placing it on the stage of the microscope. 

2. Focus the scale of the stage micrometer accurately so that the 
lines of the two micrometers will appear in the same plane. Make 
the lines on the two micrometers parallel each other. This can 
often be done by turning the ocular to the right or left while looking 
into the microscope. 


32 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


3. Make two of the lines on the ocular micrometer coincide with 
two on the stage micrometer. Note the number of included divi¬ 
sions. 

4. Note the known value for each division of the stage micrometer 
scale which may either be etched on the stage micrometer or indi¬ 
cated on a label found pasted upon it. If the value indicated is 0.01 
mm. (Jfoo mm.’) then each division of the stage micrometer scale 
has a value of 10 microns; if 0.1 mm. mm.), 100 microns. 

5. Multiply the number of included divisions of the stage microm¬ 
eter scale by the value in microns given for each division and divide 
the result by the number of included divisions of the ocular microm¬ 
eter scale. The quotient represents the value of each division of 
the ocular micrometer scale. 

6. Note the optical combination (number of ocular, objective and 
tube length) used and keep a record of it with the calculated microm¬ 
eter value. Repeat for each of the combinations. 

To measure an object by this method read off the number of 
divisions it occupies of the ocular micrometer scale, and express the 
result in microns by looking up the recorded value for the optical 
combination used. 


CHAPTER II 


LIFE HISTORY OF THE MALE FERN [DRYOPTERIS 
(ASPIDIUM OR NEPHRODIUM) FILIX-MAS] 

The Male Fern along with the Marginal Fern {Dryopteris margin- 
alis) have long been known to the pharmaceutical and medical pro¬ 
fessions as the source of the drug Aspidium, a most valuable remedy 
for the expulsion of tapeworm. The parts of these plants employed 
are the rhizome and stipes which are collected in autumn, freed of 
the roots and dead portions and dried at a temperature not exceeding 
7o°C. 

HISTORY OF THE SPOROPHYTE OR ASEXUAL GENERATION 

Gross Structure of Stem. —The main axis of Dryopteris Filix-mas 
is the creeping underground stem or rhizome which is oblique or 
ascending in habit. It gives off numerous roots from its lower and 
posterior portions and fronds from its upper and anterior portions. 
Behind the fronds of the present year are to be noted the persistent 
stalk bases of fronds of previous seasons. Lateral buds are frequently 
to be noted connected with these. The roots are slender and brown 
with semi-transparent apices. They are inserted on the bases of 
the fronds, close to their junction with the stem. The growing end 
of the rhizome is called the anterior extremity and is marked by the 
presence of an apical bud overarched by young fronds. The opposite 
end is known as the posterior extremity and in the living plant is 
constantly decaying, as the anterior portion elongates. 

Histology of Mature Stem (Rhizome). —Passing from periphery 
toward the center the following structures are to be observed: 

1. Epidermis, a protective outer covering tissue, composed of a 
single layer of brownish polyhedral cells from which are given off 
scaly hairs. 

2. Outer Cortex (hypodermis), a zone of several layers of thick- 
walled lignified cells separating the epidermis from the inner cortex 
beneath. Its main function is to support the epidermis. 

33 


3 


34 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


3. Inner cortex of several layers of more or less isodiametric cells 
(cells of nearly the same length, breadth and thickness) with thin 
cellulose walls and containing stored starch surrounded by a proto- 



Fig. 12 .—Dryopteris filix-mas —Plant and section through pinnule and sorus. 

(Sayre.) 


plasmic investment. These cells conduct sap by osmosis and 
store food. Between the cells are to be noted intercullular-air- 
spaces, many of which contain internal glandular hairs. 



LIFE HISTORY OF THE MALE FERN 


35 


4 - Fundamental tissue, resembling the last in aspect and function. 

5. Vascular Bundles. —These are of two kinds, viz.: stem bundles 
and leaf-trace bundles. Both are of elliptical outline, as seen in 
cross section, and are embedded in the parenchyma forming the 
broad central matrix. The stem bundles are comparatively broad 
and, as viewed in longitudinal sections, form a continuous network 
with good-sized meshes, each mesh being opposite the point of in¬ 
sertion of one of the leaves (See Fig. 13). 

In transverse section these bundles are 
seen to be usually ten in number and ar¬ 
ranged in an interrupted circle within the 
fundamental tissue. The leaf-trace bun¬ 
dles are comparatively narrow and are 
observed to come off of the stem-bundles 
and pass out through the cortex into the 
leaves (fronds). When each bundle is 
examined under a high-power magnifica¬ 
tion it is seen to be composed of: (a) an 
endodermis or bundle sheath , a single layer 
of cells with yellowish walls and granular 
contents; ( b ) a pericambium or phloem 
sheath of one to three layers of delicate 
thin-walled cells, rich in protoplasm; (c) a 
phloem , a broad zone of tissue formed of 
phloem cells, with thin cellulose walls and 
protoplasmic contents, which convey sugar 
in solution from the leaves to the roots and 
broader sieve tubes which appear polygonal 
in transverse section and whose function is that of conveying soluble 
proteins in the same direction; (< d ) a xylem (wood) formed of thin- 
walled xylem cells which store food and scalariform tubes or tracheids 
which conduct crude sap (water with mineral salts in solution) from 
the roots to the leaves (fronds). Since the xylem is surrounded by the 
phloem, the fibro-vascular bundle is of the concentric type. Strictly 
speaking the endodermis and pericambium are accessory regions, sur¬ 
rounding, but not part of the bundle proper. 



Fig. 13. — A. Cylindrical 
network of vascular bundles 
in the stem of Dryopteris 
Filix-mas. B. A portion of 
the same more highly mag¬ 
nified. At L are the inter¬ 
stices over which the leaves 
are inserted; at G are 
branches (leaf trace bun¬ 
dles) passing into the leaves 
from the main vascular 
bundles. (Sayre.) 



PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


36 


a.c. 


m , 


Histology of Growing Apex. —When the bases of the leaves of the 
current year, the circinate leaves of the following year and the large 
mass of brown scales have been removed from around the apical bud 
of a well-grown plant, the following structures may readily be ob¬ 
served with a hand lens: 

1. The apical cone (punctum vegetationis ), a rounded papilla, which 
occupies a terminal position in the apical region. 

2. The young fronds, arranged around the apical cone. 

Upon removing the extreme apex of the apical cone with a sharp 
razor, mounting in dilute glycerine or water and examining under 

low power, it will be noted 
that a large pyramidal cell 
occupies the center of the. 
apical cone. This is the 
apical cell (Fig. 14). The 
cells surrounding it have 
been derived by segmenta¬ 
tion (cell-division) from it, 
by means of walls parallel 
to its three sides; they are 
termed segment cells and in 
turn undergo further di¬ 
vision and redivision to 
originate the entire stem 
tissue and leaf tissue. Step 
by step the tissue cells become modified into epidermal, cortical, 
bundle and fundamental cells. 

Histology of Mature Root. —Transverse sections cut some dis¬ 
tance above the apex will present the following structures for 
examination: 

1. Epidermis, of epidermal cells whose outer walls are brown. 
Some of these cells have grown out as root hairs which surround soil 
particles and absorb water with mineral salts in solution. 

2. Cortex, of many layers of cortical parenchyma cells with brown 
walls. The outer layers of cells of this region are thin-walled, while 
the extreme inner ones are lignified and form a sclerenchymatous 
ring which surrounds the 



Fig. 14. —Apical cell of a fern rhizome in 
vertical longitudinal section. a.c., apical 
cell; h, hair; m, meristem. (After Hofmeister.) 
Sedgwick & Wilson's General Biology, 
Henry Holt & Co. 




LIFE HISTORY OF THE. MALE FERN 37 

3. Endodermis, a single layer of cells tangentially-elongated. 

4. Pericambium (Pericycle), usually of two layers of thin-walled 
cells containing protoplasm and large nuclei. This region surrounds 
the 

5. Radial fibro-vascular bundle, consisting of two phloem patches 
of phloem cells and sieve tubes on either side of two radial xylem 
arms of xylem cells, spiral tracheae and scalariform tubes. 

6. Lateral rootlets, which take origin in the pericambium. 

Histology of Root Apex. —Microscopic examination shows this 

region to be composed of soft, pale, growing cells ending in the tri¬ 
angular apex-cell of the root. From the free base of the apex cell 
segment cells are cut off as calyptrogen cells. These by dividing 
form the root cap. The root cap or calyptra consists of a mass of 
loosely attached cells which forms a protective covering around the 
tip of the root. 

From the inner sloping sides of the apex cell the segment cells give 
origin to the dermatogen, which by repeated division of its cells, 
originates the epidermis (outer protective covering of the root), the 
periblem , originating cortex and the plerome originating the bundle 
and related tissue. 

Continuity of Crude Sap Flow. —The crude sap (water with mineral 
salts in solution) penetrates the thin walls of the root hairs by osmosis 
and passes into the interior of hairs, thence into the root xylem and 
through this to stem xylem, thence through stem xylem into the 
leaves. 

Histology of Stipe (Petiole). —This, in transverse section,passing 
from periphery toward the center, presents the following structural 
characteristics: (see Fig. 15). 

1. Epidermis, a single layer of epidermal cells with dark brown 
outer walls. 

2. Outer cortex (hypodermis), a wide band of small cells with ligni- 
fied walls. 

3. Inner cortex, similar to inner cortex of stem but devoid of leaf- 
trace bundle. 

4. Fundamental parenchyma, similar to same region of stem, in 
which are embedded a number of concentric fibro-vascular bundles 
arranged in an interrupted circle. Each of these shows a central 


38 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


xylem mass surrounded by an outer phloem mass. Each bundle is 
enveloped by a pericambium and an endodermis or bundle sheath. 

Histology of Lamina. —In transverse and surface sections the 
lamina or blade shows the following structural details: 

i. Upper epidermis, of wavy-walled, slightly chlorophylloid, flat 
upper epidermal cells, devoid of stomata, but with rather thick 
cuticle. 



Pig. 15. —Transverse section of stipe of Dryo-pteris Filix-mas showing epi¬ 
dermis (e); hypodermis (h); inner cortex (t'c); concentric fibrovascular bundles, 
one of which is shown at (&); endodermis ( en); pericambium {p); xylem ( x); 
and phloem (p). (Photomicrograph.) X 50.4. 


2. Mesophyll, of irregular shaped chlorphylloid cells, containing 
abundant chloroplasts. Intercellular-air-spaces are found between 
various cells which are larger in the lower than in the upper region. 
Internal glandular-hairs are frequently to be discerned in many of 
these spaces. 

3. Concentric vascular bundles or laminar veins, that distribute 
sap to, and carry sap from the mesophyll. These are seen to be 





LIFE HISTORY OF THE MALE FERN 


39 


embedded in the mesophyll. The xylem portion of each bundle is 
nearest to the upper surface of the leaf and so the bundles approach 
the collateral type. 

4. Endodermis, a continuous layer of mesophyll cells which sur¬ 
rounds each bundle and binds it in place. 

5. Lower epidermis of wavy-walled, flattened, chlorophylloid cells 
with thin cuticle and many stomata (breathing pores). Each stoma 
is surrounded by a pair of crescent-shaped guard cells which regulate 
its opening and closing. The upper and lower epidermis are con¬ 
tinuous around the laminar margin. 

Comparative Physiology of Root, Stem and Leaf (Frond).— The 
primary function of the roots of the Male Fern is that of absorption 
of water with mineral salts in solution. The secondary function 
is that of support for the stem, the tertiary, that of storing food¬ 
stuffs to tide the plant over the season when vegetative activities 
are lessened. Water is the most essential of all materials absorbed 
by vegetable organisms. It is found in the soil surrounding the 
soil particles with certain mineral salts dissolved in it. The delicate 
root-hairs with thin cellulose walls, protoplasmic lining and sap 
denser than the soil water, are firmly adherent to these particles. 
The soil water diffuses through these walls by osmosis and comes into 
relation with the ectoplasm, a delicate protoplasmic membrane, 
which has the power of selecting what it wants and rejecting what it 
does not need. In this way only such solutes as are of value to the 
plant are admitted. The water with mineral salts in solution, once 
within the root-hair protoplast, is called “crude sap.” This passes 
through the hair into the cortical parenchyma cells which are in 
contact with the spiral ducts and scalariform tracheids. It passes 
from one cortex cell to another by osmosis and, under considerable 
root pressure, is forced into the spiral and scalariform tubes of the 
xylem. Therein it is conveyed upward by root pressure through the 
tracheids of the stem bundles into those of the leaves and finally 
osmoses into the leaf parenchyma cells (mesophyll). 

Carbon dioxide, (C 0 2 ), from the air, enters the leaf through the 
stomata. From the stomata it moves through the intercellular-air- 
spaces to the mesophyll cells which line these, whence it is absorbed. 
Within the mesophyll cells are found small chloroplasts composed 


40 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


of protoplasm and chlorophyll. The kinetic energy of the sun’s rays 
is absorbed by the chlorophyll which is thus energized to break up 
the C 0 2 and H 2 0 into their component elements C,H and O, and 
rearrange them in such a way as to ultimately form sugar or starch. 
This process is called photosynthesis . According to von Baeyer, 
C 0 2 is split into C and 0 2 , the C being retained, the 0 2 given off. 
The nascent C is linked with H 2 0 to form CH 2 0 (formic-aldehyde); 
six molecules of this are then united to form grape sugar (C6 Hi 2 0 6 ). 
The formation of starch may be expressed by the following equation: 
6 C 0 2 + 5H 2 0 = C 6 Hio 0 6 + 60 2 . A portion of the grape sugar is 
removed from solution by the chloroplast and converted into starch 
which is stored up within it; another portion is used to nourish the 
protoplasm of the cell. But the greater portion of sugar manu¬ 
factured descends in solution through the phloem cells of the bundles 
of the veins, mid-rib and stipe to the stem or roots, where it is re¬ 
moved from solution by the action of the leucoplasts which convert 
it into reserve starch. Sugar and starch, however, are not the only 
food materials manufactured in the leaf. Proteins are likewise 
formed. These are composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, 
sulphur and sometimes phosphorus. They are formed from grape 
sugar with the addition of nitrogen and the other elements by the 
living protoplasm. The source of nitrogen, sulphur and phos¬ 
phorus is the mineral salts which are found in the crude sap. These 
proteins descend through the sieve tubes of the veins, midrib and 
petiole to the stem and roots, nourishing all of these parts with protein 
material. 

Gross Structure and Histology of the Sori and Sporangia. —The 

sporangia or spore cases are found clustered together in circular 
groups on the under surface of the pinnules nearer the mid-vein than 
the margin. Each group of sporangia is covered with a membranous 
expansion of the epidermis called the indusium. The whole is called 
a sorus (Fig. 12) (pi. sori) and contains many sporangia. Each 
sporangium is composed of: (a) the stalk of considerable length and 
usually comprising three rows of cells, outgrowths of the epidermis of 
the. pinnule ; and ( b ) the head, sub-globular and hollow, consisting for 
the most part of a covering of thin walled, flattened cells, within 


LIFE HISTORY OF THE MALE FERN 


41 


which will be noted a marginal ring of cells, with walls having 
U-shaped thickenings, and called the annulus. 

Within the sporangium are found the spores. Each spore is a 
single cell composed of an outer brown wall with band-like markings 
called an exosporium , an inner thinner wall or endosporium, and with¬ 
in this a mass of protoplasm containing a nucleus. 

. Rupture of Sporangium and Spore Dissemination— As was pre¬ 
viously indicated, each sporangial head has a row of cells with 
U-shaped thickenings around the margin called an annulus. As the 
sporangium matures the water escapes from the cells, pulling them 
together and holding the annulus like a bent spring. The thinner 



Fig. 16. —Sporangia of an undetermined species of fern; li, lip-cells; an, annulus; 
st, stalk; sp, mature spores. Each of the four nuclei in the upper cells of the 
stalk is in the terminal cell of one of the four rows of cells that compose the stalk. 
(Gager.) 


walled cells at the side of the spore case opposite the annulus, unable 
to stand the strain, are consequently torn; the annulus then 
straightens and a wide rent is made in the sporangium. The annulus 
then recoils and hurls the spores out of the sporangium. This 
closes the sporophyte generation. 

History of the Gametophyte or Sexual Generation. —The fern 
spore, falling upon a moist surface, germinates, producing a delicate 
green septate filament called a protonema. One end of this structure 
shows larger cells, which, by the formation of oblique walls, cut out 
an apical cell of somewhat triangular shape. This is the growing 
point of what eventually becomes a mature, green, heart-shaped 
body called the “ prothallium ” or “prothallus.” The prothallium, 
about the size of an infant’s finger nail, develops on its under surface 


42 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 





Pig. 17. — A, under surface of a fern prothallium showing archegonia (/)’ 
antheridia (m) and rhizoids (r); B, immature archegonium showing binucleate 
neck canal cell ( n.c.c .), ventral canal cell (v.c.c.), and egg (e); C, mature arche¬ 
gonium showing sperms ( sp .) moving through neck canal (w.c.) toward ovum 
(e); and venter (z/). All highly magnified. 





















LIFE HISTORY OF THE MALE FERN 


43 


antheridia, or male sexual organs, archegonia , or female sexual organs, 
and rhizoids or hair-like absorptive structures. The antheridia 
appear three to five weeks after spore germination. They are hemi¬ 
spherical in shape and are situated among the rhizoids toward the 
posterior end. Each antheridium consists of a three-celled wall 
which completely surrounds the spermatocytes or mother-cells of the 
spermatozoids. Within each spermatocyte the pfotoplasm arranges 
itself in a spiial fashion forming a spermatozoid , a spiral, many 
ciliated, male sexual cell. From two to four weeks after the matura¬ 
tion of the antheridia, the archegonia make their appearance toward 




Fig. 18.— A, median longitudinal section through immature antheridium, and 
cell of prothallium showing prothallial cell (p), and antheridial wall surrounding a 
number of spermatocytes; B, similar section through mature antheridium and cell 
of prothallium showing fully developed spermatozoids ( sp .) enclosed by wall of 
antheridium. Both highly magnified. 


the indented apex of the lower prothallial surface as outgrowths of 
the prothallial cushion. Since they appear later than the antheridia 
they are not likely to be fertilized by spermatozoids from the anther¬ 
idia of the same prothallium. Each mchegonium is composed of a 
venter , neck, neck canal-cells, ventral canal-cell, and ovum or egg-cell. 
The neck is composed of cells arranged in four rows, forming a cylin¬ 
der, one layer of cells thick. This protrudes from the surface of 
the prothallium and encloses the neck canal-cells and ventral canal- 
cell. The ovum is embedded in the prothallial cushion just beneath 
the ventral canal-cell. Upon the maturation of the archegonium, 
the canal cells are transformed into a mucilaginous substance which 
fills a can&l extending from the outside opening (mouth )to the ovum. 















44 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


During wet weather the mature antheridial wall bursts open and 
the many ciliated spermatozoids escape into the water. These mov¬ 
ing in the water are drawn by the chemotactic malic acid to the 
mouths of the archegonia of another prothallus, and, passing down 
the canal of each of these, gather around the ovum. One, probably 
the best adapted, fuses with the ovum and fertilizes it forming an 
oospore or fertilized egg. 

Origin of New Sporophyte or Diploid Plant from Fertilized Egg.— 

The fertilized egg now rapidly divides and redivides to form octant 
cells. The octant cells further divide to produce anteriorly a stem 
rudiment (one cell), first leaf (two cells), second leaf (one cell) and, 
posteriorly, root rudiment (one cell), foot rudiment (two cells) and 
hair rudiments (one cell). 

Growth of Seedling into Mature Sporophyte. —The foot rudiment 
develops into the foot which obtains nourishment from the prothal¬ 
lium, upon which the young sporophyte is for a time parasitic. The 
root rudiment becomes the first root which grows downward into 
the soil. The stem and leaves turn upward. In a few weeks the 
prothallus decays and the sporophyte is established as an independ¬ 
ent plant. More roots and leaves (fronds) are developed and ere 
long continued growth results in the formation of a mature sporo¬ 
phyte which presents for examination: (i) a subterranean stem bear¬ 
ing several roots ; and (2) cerial fronds , each of which consists of a 
stipe or petiole and a lamina or blade, the latter divisible into pinnoe 
or lobes and pinnules, upon which last sori are developed. 

Alternation of Generations. —It will be observed that in the life 
cycle of the Male Fern there occur two distinct generations, one, a 
sporophyte or asexual generation which begins with the oospore and 
ends with the dispersion of asexual spores; a second, the gametophyte 
or sexual generation, beginning with the protonemal outgrowth of 
the spore and ending with the fertilization of the egg to form an 
oospore. The sporophyte gives rise to the gametophyte which in 
turn gives origin to the sporophyte. 


CHAPTER III 


LIFE HISTORY OF A GYMNOSPERM (PINUS STROBUS) 


The White Pine frequently called the Weymouth Pine [Finns 
Strobus), one of the principal timber trees of the Northern States 



Pig. 19.—Transverse section of white pine stem ol four years’ growth, showing 
cork (a), cortex (6), phloem (c), cambium (d), xylem ( e ), secretion reservoir (/), 
pith (g) and medullary ray (h). (Photomicrograph.) X 340 - 

and Canada, is also of value in pharmacy and medicine. The inner 
bark of its trunk and branches is used because of its valuable ex¬ 
pectorant properties and is official in the N. F. IV. 

45 






46 PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 

DESCRIPTION OF THE WHITE PINE TREE (MATURE 
SPOROPHYTE) 

From an underground spreading root system there arises an erect 
aerial trunk or stem that extends from the ground to the apex of the 
tree, ending in a terminal bud. The trunk rarely exceeds 3 feet in 
diameter and 125 feet in height and is averagely 1 }/% to 3 feet in 


Pig. 20. —Transverse section of white pine needle (leaf) showing epidermis (a), 
infolded parenchyma cells of mesophyll (&, &'), oil reservoir (t), endodermis (d), 
clear cellular area (e) surrounding fibrovascular tissue in center (/). X400. 

diameter and 50 to 90 feet high. At a varying distance above the 
soil, depending upon environal conditions as well as the age of plant, 
whorls of lateral branches (three to seven in a whorl) are seen ema¬ 
nating from the trunk in horizontal fashion at various levels up to 
near the apex. These become, under conditions prevalent when the 
tree is grown in the open, gradually shorter until the summit is 




LIFE HISTORY OF A GYMNOSPERM 


47 


reached, giving to the crown or upper part of the tree the appearance 
of a pyramid. These branches give rise to other branches which 
agree with the lateral branches in bearing, commonly, only scale like 
leaves as well as in ending in terminal buds. Another kind of 
branch, however, is found which is always shorter than the scaly 
branches. This type of branch is called a “spur shoot” and arises 



Fig. 21.—Staminate cones of the Austrian pine (Pinus austriaca). Below, before 
shedding pollen; above, after shedding. {Gager ) 

from the former branches. The spur shoots bear the needles or 
foliage leaves which are light-green, when young, and bluish-green, 
soft, flexible, 2% to 5 inches long, when mature. The “needles” 
occur in tufts ( fascicles ) of five, are triangular in cross-section, have 
finely serrate (. saw-toothed ) edges and are surrounded at the base by a 
deciduous sheath. These foliage leaves persist until the end of their 
second year, when they are shed with the spur shoot which bears 
them. 

The white pine, like most of its allies among the Coniferae, bears 
cones. These structures are of two kinds, viz.: staminate and car- 
pellate. Both kinds are produced on the same tree. 




48 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Staminate Cones. —The yellow, ovate, staminate cones appear 
about May and are clustered at the base of the new growth of the 
current season. Each consists of a main axis (modified branch) 
which bears spirals of scales (microsporophylls or stamens). On the 



Pig. 22.—Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris). A-D, stages in the development of the 
carpellate cone, and its carpotropic movements. E, very young carpellate cone 
much enlarged; F, ventral, G, dorsal views of a scale from E; i, ovuliferous scale; 
2, ovule (in longitudinal section); 3, pollen chamber and micropyle leading to 
the apex of the nucellus (megasporangium); 4, integument of the ovule; G, 1, tip 
of ovuliferous scale; 5, bract; 4, integument; H, longitudinal section at right 
angles to the surface of the ovuliferous scale (diagrammatic); 6, megaspore; 7, 
pollen chamber; I, longitudinal section of a mature cone; 6, ovule; J, scale from 
a mature cone; 6, seed; w, wing of seed; K, dissection of mature seed; h, hard seed 
coat; c, dry membraneous remains of the nucellus, here folded back to show the 
endosperm and embryo; e, embryo; p, remains of nucellus; L, embryo; c, cotyle¬ 
dons; e, hypocotyl; r, root-end. (Gager.) 

under surface of each scale are the spore-cases (microsporangia ), 
which develop the microspores (pollen grains). Each pollen grain 
when mature consists of a central fertile cell and a pair of air-sacs 
or wings, one on either side of the fertile cell. The purpose of the 
latter is to give greater buoyancy in the air to the microspore. 

Carpellate Cones. —The young carpellate cones appear in May or 
early June as pinkish-purple structures arranged in solitary fashion 












LIFE HISTORY OF A GYMNOSPERM 


49 


or in small groups,‘lateral along the new growth. Each terminates 
a lateral axillary branch. A carpellate cone is composed of a main 
axis which bears spirals of scales, by some termed megasporophylls 
{carpels). Each scale is composed of an ovuliferous scale bearing 
two ovules or megasori and a bract. Each megasorus contains a 



Fig. 23.— 


Mature carpellate cones of white pine showing separated scales. 


nucellus or megasporangium which is surrounded by an integument, 
except at the apex where an opening, the micropyle is evident. The 
micropyle is the gateway to the pollen chamber which lies below it. 
Within the nucellus occurs a megaspore or embryo sac. 

DESCRIPTION OF THE GAMETOPHYTE GENERATION 

The Gametophyte generation of the White Pine begins with the 
development of the male and female gametophytes and terminates 
with the fertilization of the egg. 

The Male Gametophyte. —The male gametophyte commences to 
form in the mature pollen grain before the pollen is shed. A series 
4 


1 




50 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


of three nuclear divisions takes place which cut off two small prothal- 
lial cells (traces of one of which may be seen pushed up against the 
wall of the fertile cell of the pollen grain), a tube nucleus and a 
generative cell. At this stage the pollen is shed and some of it is 
carried by air currents to the carpellate cones where it sifts in be¬ 
tween the ovule-bearing scales and accumulates at the scale bases. 
A number of the pollen grains are drawn close to the nucellus of the 
ovule by the drying up of the viscid fluid which fills the pollen 
chamber. In this fluid they germinate forming pollen tubes. The 



Fig. 24. —The white pine (Pinus Strobus). Sections through mature pollen 
grains; at the left the remnants of two prothallial cells can be seen, while at the 
right all signs of the first cell have disappeared. Pollen collected June 9, 1898. 
X about 600. (Gager, after Margaret C. Ferguson.) 


transfer of pollen grains from the pollen sac to the pollen chamber 
and consequent germination therein is called pollination. The con¬ 
tents of a mature pollen-grain constitutes the male gametophyte. 

The Female Gametophyte. —If the embryo sac be examined at 
about the time of pollination, it will be found to consist of a single 
cell containing a single nucleus surrounded by cytoplasm. Very 
shortly afterward, however, the nucleus divides repeatedly to form a 
large number of nuclei which are scattered throughout the cyto¬ 
plasm'. Each nucleus accumulates around itself a portion of the 
cytoplasm and ultimately cell walls are laid down and the entire 
embryo sac contains endosperm (prothallial) tissue. Toward the 
micropylar end of the endosperm ( prothallus ) originate several 
archegonia. 

Each archegonium consists of a much-reduced neck of four cells 
and an egg {ovum) which lies embedded in the prothallus which 
forms a narrow layer of cells around it called the jacket. The con¬ 
tents of the mature embryo-sac constitutes the female gametophyte. 




Fig. 25. —White pine ( Pinus Strobus ). At left, megasporangium with mega¬ 
spore in the center; above, pollen grains in the micropyle and pollen chamber. At 
right, pollen grains beginning to germinate; the cells of the integument have 
X enlarged and closed the micropyh'. (Gager, after Mat garet C. Ferguson.) 



Fig. 26. —White pine (Pinus Strobus). 
of an ovule, shortly before fertilization, 
tube-nucleus; arch, archegonium; e.n., 
Ferguson .) * 


Vertical section through the upper part 
s.n., sperm-nuclei; si. c., stalk-cell; t.n. 
egg-nucleus. (Gager, after Margaret C. 











52 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Fertilization. —About a year after pollination the pollen tubes, 
lying within the pollen chamber show signs of renewed .activity. 
The tube nucleus passes to the tip of the tube. The generative-cell 
divides to fotm a body and a stalk-cell which pass into the tube. 
The body-cell later forms two sperm nuclei. While these changes are 
taking place the tube is penetrating the nucellus and growing toward 
the embryo sac with its contained female gametophyte. It finally 
enters it, passing between the neck-cells of the archegonium. The 
tip of the tube then breaks and the entire tube contents is emptied 
into the egg. One of the sperm nuclei fuses with the egg nucleus 
and fertilizes it forming an oospore. 

Seed Formation and Distribution. —The oopsore undergoes re¬ 
peated divisions and forms the embryo or young sporophyte plant 
and a suspensor to which it is attached. The embryo is nourished 
by a portion of the prothallus but the greater part of the prothallus 
forms the endosperm tissue of the seed surrounding the embryo. 
The thin nucellus persists as an endosperm covering. The integu¬ 
ment becomes modified to form the hard protective seed coat. A 
portion of the scale of the cone directly above and adjacent to the 
ovule forms a membranous wing which separates from the scale as 
part of the seed. 

By this time (about two years after pollination) the scales of the 
cone, now quite woody, separate, the seeds are shaken out, and many 
are carried for a considerable distance by winds. 

Germination of the Seed. —Under favorable conditions, the seeds 
absorb water and germinate in the spring following their dispersal. 
The hypocotyl of the embryo appears first, arching upward and 
downward, and, straightening out, draws the green cotyledons with 
it which spread out toward the light, while it grows into the soil to 
form the tap root and in time the remainder of the root system. 
Thus the seedling sporophyte is formed which in time develops into 
the mature White Pine tree. 


I 


CHAPTER IV 

LIFE HISTORY OF AN ANGIOSPERM (ERYTHRONIUM 
AMERICANUM) 

This attractive little plant, commonly called the Dog’s Tooth 
Violet but related to the Lily, is found in the hollows of woods and 
may be seen in flower during the month of April in the Middle 



Fig. 27. —Dog’s-tooth violet (Erythronium americanum). Stages of 
development from the seed. 1-5 show the stage of development in each of five 
successive years. Full explanation in the text. 6, Bulb showing a surface bud 
(the sprout has been destroyed). {Gager After F. H. Blodgett.) 

Atlantic States. It consists of an underground stem bearing scales 
(modified leaves) which is termed a bulb. From the lower surface 
of the bulb are given off numerous slender rootlets which penetrate 
the soil and from the upper surface, a pair of oblong lance-shaped 

53 













54 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


I 

leaves of pale green color mottled with purple and white, and later, a 
flower stalk {scape), which bears upon its summit a single yellow, 
nodding flower, which is often marked with purple stripes. The 
flower consists of a torus or receptacle which will be observed as the 
upper swollen end of the flower stalk (scape). Inserted upon it, 
passing from periphery toward the center, will be noted four whorls 
of floral leaves which, in order, are calyx, corolla, andrcecium and 
gynoecium. The calyx is composed of three lance-shaped and re¬ 
curved yellow parts called sepals ; the corolla of three similarly 
looking parts called petals which alternate in position with the sepals. 
Both pf these whorls are collectively called the perianth or floral 
envelope. The androecium or male system of organs is composed 
of two whorls or circles of structures called microsporophylls or 
stamens. There are three stamens in each whorl. The outer whorl 
of stamens will be found opposite the sepals while the inner will be 
observed opposite the petals. Each stamen (microsporophyll) con¬ 
sists of an awl-shaped stalk or filament bearing upon its summit an 
oblong-linear body called an anther. The anther consists of two 
lobes called microsori. Each lobe or microsorus contains two anther 
sacs or microsporangia in which when mature are to be found micro¬ 
spores or pollen grains. In the center of the flower will be noted 
the gynoecium or female system of organs. This, upon dissection, 
will be found to consist of three fused carpellary leaves termed mega- 
sporophylls (carpels) forming a somewhat flask-shaped structure 
called a pistil. The swollen basal portion of the pistil is called the 
ovary, the stalk which arises from it is called the style and the knob¬ 
like viscid summit of the style is termed the stigma. 

Microscopical examination of sections of the ovary will reveal it 
to be composed of three chambers called locules, within each of which 
are to be noted several inverted ovules. Each of these ovules is 
developed upon a nourishing tissue termed “placenta” wl>ich con¬ 
nects the ovules to the inner angle of the wall of the locule. The 
ovule is composed of a central prominent megasporangium or nucellus 
which is almost completely invested by two upgrown integuments 
or coverings. The opening between the tips of the inner integument 
is called the micropyle (little gate). This is the gateway for the 
entrance of the pollen tube on its way to the nucellus. It is also 


LIFE HISTORY OF AN ANGIOSPERM 


55 


the exit door for the hypocotyl of the embryo after the fertilized 
and ripened ovule becomes a seed. Within the nucellus, if the sec¬ 
tions examined have been properly fixed, will be found a megaspore 
or embryo sac. 

Development of the Female Gametophyte Through the Matura¬ 
tion of the Embryo Sac.—In its immature condition the embryo 
sac (megaspore) contains a mass of protoplasm surrounding a nucleus. 
This nucleus undergoes three divisions forming as a result eight 
nuclei which ultimately arrange themselves within the protoplasm 
of the embryo sac as follows: three of them occupy a position at the 
apex, the lower nucleus of the group being that of the egg or ovum, the 
other two nuclei being the synergids or assisting nuclei; at the oppo¬ 
site end of the sac three nuclei known as antipodals take their posi¬ 
tion; the two remaining nuclei called polar nuclei take up a position 
near the center of the embryo sac. In this condition the contents 
of the embryo sac constitutes the female gametophyte. See Fig. 
28 (1-8). 


MATURATION OF THE POLLEN GRAIN AND FORMATION OF THE 
MALE GAMETOPHYTE 

The pollen grains (microspores), within the anther‘sacs, all arise 
from a number of tetrads (groups of four) which are formed by the 
division and redivision of pollen mother-cells preceeding them. Each 
pollen grain, after the tetrads have separated into their components, 
consists of an outer firm wall or exosporium, an inner wall or endo- 
sporium, within which will be found .the region called the fovilla, 
which is nothing other than a mass of protoplasm containing a 
nucleus. Before the pollen is shed from the anther its protoplasmic 
contents undergo a series of changes leading up to the development 
cf the male gametophyte. The nucleus and protoplasm enveloping 
it divides to form two cells, one a generative-cell containing a genera¬ 
tive nucleus, the other a tube-cell containing a tube nucleus. The 
generative nucleus then divides to form two sperm nuclei and the 
partition wall between the two cells disappears. In this condition 
the protoplasmic contents of the pollen grain constitute the male 
gametophyte. 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


56 

POLLINATION AND FERTILIZATION 

The mature pollen grains are discharged from the ripened anther 
through the splitting open of its wall. They are transferred to the 
stigma of the -pistil of another Erythronium flower through the 
agency of insects. Here they germinate, each putting forth a tube 



Fig. 28. —At the left, diagram of the anatomy of an angiospermous flower 
shortly after pollination; anth., anther; fil., filament; st., stamen; stig., stigma; 
p.g., pollen grains germinating; sty., style; pt., pollen tube; o.w., ovary wall; o. 
ovule, containing embryo-sac; pet., petal; sep., sepal. 1-8, Stages in the devel¬ 
opment of the female gametophyte (embryo-sac); meg.sp., megaspore-mother¬ 
cell; i.i., inner integument; o.i., outer integument; fun., funiculus; chal., chalaza; 
nu., nucellus (megasporangium); emb., embryo-sac. All diagrammatic. (Gager.) 


(pollen tube). The pollen tubes, carrying within it two sperm 
nuclei and a tube nucleus embedded in protoplasm, penetrate 
through the style canal until they reach the micropyles of various 
ovules. Each enters and passes through a micropyle, then piercing 
the nucellus, grows toward the embryo sac. The tip of the tube 
fuses with the end of the embryo sac and the two sperm nuclei are 
discharged into the sac. One of these sperm nuclei passes between 















LIFE HISTORY OF AN ANGIOSPERM 


57 


the synergids and fuses with the nucleus of the egg to form an 
oospore. By this time the tube nucleus has disintegrated. The 
oospore by repeated divisions develops into as many as four embryos 
or young sporophyte plants. Only one of these, however persists. 
The polar nuclei fuse to form the endosperm nucleus which soon 
undergoes rapid division into a large number of nuclei scattered 
about through the protoplasm of the embryo sac. Later cell walls 
are laid down and endosperm is formed. The endosperm cells soon 
become filled with abundant starch which is later to be utilized by 
the embryo during germination. 

RIPENING OF THE OVULE TO FORM THE SEED AND OF THE OVARY 
TO FORM THE FRUIT 

When the embryo and endosperm are being formed, the ovule 
enlarges and its integuments become modified to form a hard horny 
seed coat which encloses the endosperm surrounding the embryo. 
The ovary, containing the ovules, has by this time ripened to form 
a three-valved loculicidal capsule enclosing the seeds. 

GERMINATION OF THE SEED AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE 
MATURE SPOROPHYTE 

The seeds are fully developed by June or July when the capsule 
or fruit splits open to discharge them. They fall to t'he ground and 
lie dormant until the following spring when they germinate or com¬ 
mence to grow. Each seed absorbs water from the ground which 
stimulates the ferment amylase, contained in the endosperm cells, to 
break up the insoluble starch into soluble sugar which passes into 
solution and diffuses into the cells of the embryo, where the proto¬ 
plasm changes it into ‘additional protoplasm and so the embryo 
increases in size, therefore, grows. The pressure of the swollen 
endosperm and growing embryo becomes so great that the seed coat 
bursts; the hypocotyl emerges first, dragging the cylindrical cotyle¬ 
don out of the seed coat and epicotyl with it. The hypocotyl elon¬ 
gates and extends itself into the soil where it develops a root near 
its tip. The tip enlarges through the storage of starch, manufac¬ 
tured by the green cotyledon and becomes a bulb. The bulb soon 


58 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


develops within it a plumule, the cotyledon withers, and the young 
plant (seedling) passes the following winter in this condition. 

During the next spring the plumule develops into a foliage leaf and 
the bulb gives rise from its base to several slender elongated runners , 
which, at their tips develop runner bulbs. These runner bulbs, the 
third year, give origin to another set of runners similar to those 
formed during the second year which also develop runner bulbs at 
their tips. A foliage leaf is also formed by each. The following 
spring (spring of fifth year) one of these bulbs develops into a 
mature sporophyte plant, bearing a single flower at the summit of 
its elongated scape. See Fig. 27. 

RESEMBLANCES BETWEEN GYMNOSPERMS AND ANGIOSPERMS 

1. In both are developed those structures in which there is no 
homologue, e.g., flowers. 

2. In both the flowers develop at least two sets of leaves (eitjher 
on one or two plants of the same species) called sporophylla or 
sporophyll leaves, the stamens and carpels. The stamens or stam¬ 
ina! leaves are also termed microsporophylls. The carpels or 
carpellate leaves are also known as megasporophylls. 

3. Both groups produce microspores or pollen grains and mega¬ 
spores or embryo sacs. 

4. In both are developed on the evident generation, the plant or 
sporophyte and the gametophyte, the latter concealed within the 
megaspore of the sporophyte. 

5. Both develop seeds with one or two seed coats. 

6. In both groups there is developed from the fertilized egg an 
embryo which lies within the cavity of the megaspore. 

7. In both there exists a root and a stem peficambium. 

8. Both produce collateral vascular bundles. Very rarely do we 
meet with concentric bundles in the stem or leaf of Angiosperms. 

FUNDAMENTAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GYMNOSPERMS AND 
ANGIOSPERMS 

1. The flowers of Gymnosperms are often monoecious or dioecious 
but very rarely hermaphrodite, as in Welwitchia, whereas those of 
Angiosperms are usually hermaphrodite, rather rarely monoecious, 
still more rarely dioecious. 


LIFE HISTORY OF AN ANGIOSPERM 59 

2. In the Gymnosperms the sporophylls are usually inserted 
either spirally or in whorls around a distinctly elongated axis, 
whereas in Angiosperms the sprophylls are condensed to short 
whorls or spirals set around a shortened axis, the floral axis or recep¬ 
tacle, torus or thalamus, or, as in the more modified Angiosperms, 
the floral axis may even-become hollow. 

3. In Gymnosperms the microsporophylls or stamens are usually 
sessile, whereas in Angiosperms the microsporophylls are nearly 
always stalked. Rarely do we find sessile anthers among Angio¬ 
sperms, an instance of this being seen in Mistletoe (Viscum) where 
the anthers are set on the staminal leaf. 

4. In Gymnosperms there is a traceable prothallus or gametophyte 
plant that later becomes the so-called “endosperm” of the gymno- 
sperm, whereas in Angiosperms no recognizable prothallus has been 
proven to exist. 

5. The stored food tissue in Gymnosperm seeds is prothallial tis¬ 
sue loaded with starch, etc., whereas in Angiosperm seeds the stored 
food tissue (endosperm) is a special formation after fertilization. 

6. Gymnosperms bear naked ovules and seeds while Angiosperms 
bear covered ones. 

7. In Gymnosperms there are distinct recognizable archegonia 
formed on or imbedded in the prothallus, whereas in Angiosperms 
there are no distinct archegonia, only an isolated egg or eggs. 

8. In Gymnosperms there are not infrequently found several 
embryos from one fertilized egg. This condition is called poly- 
embryony. Polyembryony is unknown in Angiosperms, only a false 
polyembryony being noticed. 

9. In Gymnosperms the secondary xylem (wood) tissue of roots, 
stems and leaves consists either of punctated or scalariform cells, 
whereas in Angiosperms the secondary wood tissue may be varied 
in structural aspect. 


CHAPTER V 


VEGETABLE CYTOLOGY 

Vegetable Cytology treats of plant cells and their contents. 

THE PLANT CELL AS THE FUNDAMENTAL UNIT 

Schleiden, in 1838, showed the cell to be the unit of plant structure. 
The bodies of all plants are composed of one or more of these funda¬ 
mental units. Each cell consists of a mass of protoplasm which 
may or jnay not have a cell wall surrounding it. While most plant 
cells contain a nucleus and some contain a number of nuclei, the 
cells of the blue-green algae and most of the bacteria have been found 
to lack definitely organized structures of this kind but rather con¬ 
tain chromatin within their protoplasm in a more or less diffuse 
or loosely aggregated condition. 

A TYPICAL PLANT CELL 

If we peel off a portion of the thin colorless skin or epidermis from 
the inner concave surface of an onion bulb scale, mount in water and 
examine under the microscope, we find it to be composed of a large 
number of similar cells which are separated from one another by 
means of lines, the bounding cell walls. Under high power each of 
these cells will exhibit the following characteristics: 

An outer wall, highly refractile in nature and composed of cellulose ; 
which surrounds the living matter or protoplasm (See Fig. 29). This 
wall is not living itself but is formed by the living matter of the cell. 
Somewhere within the protoplasm will be noted a denser-looking 
body. This is the nucleus . Within the nucleus will be seen one or 
more smaller highly refractile and definitely circumscribed bodies , 
the nucleolus or nucleoli. The protoplasm of the cell outside of the 
nucleus is called the “ cytoplasm .” It will be seen to be clear and 

60 


VEGETABLE CYTOLOGY 


6l 

granular-looking. Within the cytoplasm will be observed a number 
of clear spaces. These are vacuoles and because they are filled with 
cell sap (water with nutrient substances in solution) are called “sap 
vacuoles.” 

Protoplasm is in intimate relation to water. The reaction of the 
cytoplasm to a bounding film of water between it and the cell wall 
forms the outer plasma membrane or ectoplasm, a clear homogeneous 
outer band of cytoplasm; the reaction of cytoplasm to the water 



Fig. 29. —Portion of inner epidermis of Onion bulb scale showing cells at 
various stages of maturity. Young cell (1); old cell (3); cell intermediate in age 
between 1 and 3 (2); cell wall (c); outer plasma membrane ( pi ); middle lamella 
(mO; nucleus (w 1 ); nucleolus (w 2 ); nuclear membrane (w 3 ),* cytoplasm (cy); 
vacuole (z/). Note that the young cell (1) shows numerous small vacuoles and 
spheroidal nucleus near center of cytoplasm. In 2 (cell of intermediate age) the 
cell has enlarged, larger vacuoles have formed thru the bursting of films of cyto¬ 
plasm separating smaller ones, and the nucleus has moved toward the cell wall. 
In 3, the films have all burst, the cytoplasm and nucleus have been pushed up 
against the cell wall, the nucleus is flattened out, and a large vacuole appears in 
the center of the cell. 

within the sap vacuoles forms the vacuolar membranes ; the reaction 
of the dense protoplasm of the nucleus to the water in the cytoplasm 
around it forms the nuclear membrane. Upon mounting another 
portion of epidermis in iodine solution, removing the excess of stain 
and adding a drop of sulphuric acid and then examining under high 
power, we note that the cell walls of cellulose are stained a deep blue. 
A yellow line is evident in the middle of each cell wall and separates 
each cell from its bounding cells. This line is the middle lamella 
which is composed largely of calcium pedate. 













62 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


PROTOPLASM AND ITS PROPERTIES 

Protoplasm, or living matter, is the more or less semi-fluid, viscid, 
foamy, and granular substance in which life resides. It is the 
“physical basis of life.” 

The peculiar properties which distinguish protoplasm from non¬ 
living matter are as follows: 

1 . Structure. —Protoplasm invariably exhibits structure. No por¬ 
tion of it, however small, has been found to be homogeneous. Each 
advance in microscopical technique reveals new complexities. The 
protoplasm of a single cell, far from being a single unit, must rather 
be looked upon as a microcosm. 

2. Metabolism. —Perhaps the most significant peculiarity of 
living matter is found in its instability and the chemical changes 
which continually go on within it. It is constantly wasting away, 
and as constantly being built up. These losses and gains are not 
upon the exterior surface, but throughout its mass. Its growth and 
renewal are by intussusception , or the taking in of new particles 
and storing them between those already present. A bit of pro¬ 
toplasm may retain its indentity while all the matter of which it is 
composed is changed over and over. It is like a whirlpool or wave in 
a river which remains the same while the water of which it is com¬ 
posed changes continually. Metabolism has been aptly defined by 
Huxley as the whirlpool character of the organism. 

3. Irritability. —All living rfiatter responds to stimulation. When 
matter fails to be irritable or responsive to stimuli, we declare it to 
be dead. The stimuli that excite reactions in living matter are of 
two kinds, viz; intrinsic and extrinsic. 

Intrinsic stimuli are inherited stimuli. They determine that the 
plant shall conform to a particular type, carry on certain activities, 
pass through a definite life cycle, and detach a portion of its own 
substance for the formation of new individuals of its kind. 

Extrinsic stimuli initiate, inhibit, accelerate or modify the effects 
of intrinsic stimuli. They comprise agents of the external world 
such as cold, heat, chemicals, food, water, light, oxygen, electricity, 
gravity etc. 

The irritable reactions manifested by protoplasm and living things 
to the effects of these external agents will now be considered briefly. 


VEGETABLE CYTOLOGY 


63 


Thermotropism is the response of living substance to the stimulus 
of temperature. All living substance is influenced by variations in 
temperature. Freezing disintegrates it while excessive heat causes 
its coagulation. Active vital phenomena are therefore only evident 
within these extremes, the limits differing depending upon the 
endurance of the organism under examination. The lowest tem¬ 
perature at which the activity of an organism becomes evident is 
known as the minimum, that at which the activities are at their 
best, the optimum, and the highest at which they can be continued, 
the maximum. Some plants are able to endure greater extremes 
of temperature variation than others because of special adaptations. 
Thus, certain bacteria produce spores which resist exposure for an 
hour to the temperature of liquid hydrogen (-2 2 5°C) or to that of a 
hot air oven at ioo°C. Many higher plants can endure moderately 
low temperatures by the development of a hairy covering; others 
which are killed by frost produce seeds which can endure rigid cold, 
still others adapt themselves to existence through periods of cold 
by passing through a latent stage in the form of bulbs, like the Squill 
or the Lily, or rhizomes, as the Blood Root or the Hellebores. 

Chemotropism is the response of protoplasm to chemical stimula¬ 
tion. Any substances that possess the property of producing a 
deleterious effect upon protoplasm are termed poisons. Poisons 
may effect an immediate destructive combination with living sub¬ 
stance when they are called caustics , or they may have an exciting 
or depressing effect which may eventually prove destructive without 
visible structural change, when they are termed toxins. Caustics 
may liquefy the protoplasm, as the alkalies, or coagulate it, as the 
acids or salts of metals. When well diluted, chemicals may occasion 
no destructive effects, but may call forth positive or negative 
responses, known as positive or negative chemotropism. 

Thus, Pfeffer, working with the motile sperms of ferns, found that 
if a capillary tube, containing a solution of malic acid be introduced 
into water containing them, the sperms moved toward it and entered. 
It is now generally believed that the motile male sexual cells of all 
flowerless plants are attracted to the appropriate female sexual cells 
by means of positive chemotropic influences. Among flowering 
plants, it has been observed that pollen grains brought by various 


64 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


agencies from anthers to stigmas of certain plants of different species 
will not germinate but when they are carried from one plant to an¬ 
other of the same species or variety they readily send their pollen 
tubes through stigma and style to the ovule below. In the former 
instance, negative chemotropism is illustrated, while, in the latter, 
positive chemotropism is shown. 

Sitotropism is the reaction of living matter to the influence of food. 
Hertwig found that if a fine capillary tube be filled with a i per cent, 
solution of asparagin or beef extract and held in contact with a drop 
of water containing certain bacteria, a mass of these soon plugged 
the mouth of the tube. His experiment shows that these organisms 
moved from a poorer to a richer nutrient medium in response to a 
positive sitotropic influence. Oxytropism is the response to the 
stimulating influence of oxygen. We see evidence of this everywhere 
in nature. No living thing can continue to exist without this ele¬ 
ment. A mistaken idea is often prevalent regardingobligate ana¬ 
erobic bacteria. Like all other bacteria or organisms, these plants 
require oxygen but can only assimilate it in its combined form. 
The tetanus bacillus is a good example. Aerobic bacteria, on the 
other hand, 'require free (uncombined) oxygen for assimilative pur¬ 
poses. Thus the tetanus organism grows in the depth of culture 
media, whereas the tubercle bacterium (an aerobe) grows only 
on the surface. 

Hydrotropism is the response of protoplasm to the stimulus of 
water. This reaction is seen in both positive and negative phases 
in the slime molds. The vegetative stage of these lowly plants is 
characterized by a naked many nucleated mass ef protoplasm, con¬ 
fining itself to the moist crevices of rotten logs etc. until the surface 
of the substratum becomes wet when and only when it will emerge. 
As soon, however, as its fruiting stage begins, the whole protoplas¬ 
mic mass wells up from the substratum, away from moisture. The 
roots of young seedling plants show positive hydrotropism by growing 
toward moisture in the soil. 

Heliotropism is the response of living substance to the stimulus of 
light. The stems of higher plants tend to grow toward the light 
and are, therefore, positively heliotropic, whereas the roots grow 
away from the source of light and so are negatively heliotropic. 


VEGETABLE CYTOLOGY 



65 

Geotropism is the response of protoplasm to the stimulus of gravity. 
Roots of Pteridophytes and seed plants invariably grow downward 
toward the center of gravity and so are positively geotropic. The 


Fig. 30. —Venus fly-traps, Dioncea muscipula, growing in field near Wilmington, 
N. C. (Photograph by Charles Palmer.) 

fruiting organs of the fungi and the main stems of higher plants 
tend to grow perpendicular to the earth’s surface and so are nega¬ 
tively geotropic. Branches of stems that assume a relation parallel 
s 




66 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 



to the earth’s surface are diageotropic. The Lima Bean, Sarsa¬ 
parilla, Poison Ivy, and other plants whose stems twine about sup¬ 
ports exhibit lateral geotropism in their horizontal curvatures. 

Galvanotropism is the reaction of protoplasm to electrical stimuli. 
In this connection it may be said that the degree of response bears 
a definite relation to the intensity of the stimulus. No visible 
external electrotropic reactions have been observed in higher plants, 


Fig. 31 .—Mimosa Spegazzini. Note the expanded condition of the leaves before 
stimulation. (After Steckbeck.) 

although when their cells are examined microscopically, the reac¬ 
tion becomes manifest. Kuhne has shown that when an electric 
current is passed through the hairs of the Spiderwort, the cytoplasm 
becomes gathered into small globular masses. 

Thigmotropism is the response of living matter to mechanical 
stimulation. Examples of this form of irritability appear to be far 
less common among plants than among animals. Certain species 







VEGETABLE CYTOLOGY 67 

of Mimosa , Oxalis, Drosera, Desmodium and Dionoea muscipula ex¬ 
hibit this phenomenon to a marked degree. A few instances only 
will be considered. When the tendrils of climbing plants come into 
contact with the uneven surface of solid bodies they are induced to 
coil. When the tentacles on a modified leaf of the Sundew (Dro¬ 
sera) are stimulated mechanically by an insect or artifically they are 
induced to curve over. If a good plant of the Venus Fly-trap (Dionoea) 


Fig.32. — Mimosa Spegazzini. After the application of a stimulus. Compare 
with Fig. 31. (After Steckbeck.) 

is selected, it will be seen to possess leaves, the terminal portions 
of which are modified as traps for catching insects (Fig. 30). Hairs 
will be seen projecting from the upper surface of each valve of the 
hinged blade-. If one of these hairs is touched with a pencil no re¬ 
action will be evident but if after a lapse of twenty seconds the hair 
is touched again, the 2 valves close. If the stamens of Berberis be 
touched near the base during their pollen shedding stage they will 
be observed to curve toward the stigma. 




68 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


The most highly specialized form of thigmotropism observed in 
plants appears to be found in Mimosa Spegazzini, a member of the 
Bean, family. According to Steckbeck “when a mechanical stimu¬ 
lus, such as a forceps pinch, is applied to one of the terminal secon¬ 
dary leaflets after a latent period of less than y± second, the leaflet 
stimulated rises and its partner almost at the same time. The 
stimulus is then carried down the midrib, the pairs of secondary 
leaflets closing in order; in 9 seconds all the secondary leaflets have 
closed, the midribs converge followed in 3 seconds by a drop of the 
entire leaf. The stimulus moves up the other leaflet with the result 
that the secondary leaflets close in order. In 20 seconds after the 
stimulus has been applied all of the secondary leaflets are closed. 
The stimulus is propagated through the stem to other leaves.” 1 
(Figs. 31 and 32.) 

4. Reproduction. —Protoplasm also shows a very remarkable 
ability to increase and to give off detached portions which retain 
the infinitely complex peculiarities and properties of the original. 
The process, moreover, may be continued indefinitely. 

Other physiological characteristics might be added, but the above 
are mentioned as the most satisfactory criteria by which living may 
be distinguished from non-living matter. 

PROTOPLASMIC CELL CONTENTS 

Protoplasm consists of four well-differentiated portions: 

(a) Cytoplasm, or the foamy, often granular matrix of protoplasm 
outside of the nucleus. 

(b) Nucleus or Nucleoplasm, a denser region of protoplasm con¬ 
taining chromatin, a substance staining heavily with certain basic 
dyes. 

(c) Nucleolus, a small body of dense protoplasm within the 
nucleus. 

(d) Plastids, composed of plastid plasm, small discoid, spheroidal, 
ellipsoidal or ribbon-shaped bodies scattered about in the cytoplasm. 

1 “The comparative histology and irritability of sensitive plants” by D. W. 
Steckbeck in Contributions from The Botanical Laboratory of the U. of Pa., 
vol. IV, No. 2, p. 217, 1919. 


VEGETABLE CYTOLOGY 69 

Sometimes, as in the cells of lower plants like the Spirogyra, plastids 
are large and are then called chromatophores. 

According to the position of the cells in which plastids occur and 
the work they perform, they differ in color, viz: 

Leucoplastids are colorless plastids found in the underground 



Fig. 33. — A, embryonic cells from onion root tip; d, plasmatic membrane; c, cy¬ 
toplasm; a, nuclear membrane enclosing the thread-like nuclear reticulum; b, 
nucleolus; e, plastids (black dots scattered about). B, older cells farther back 
from the root tip. The cytoplasm is becoming vacuolate; /, vacuole. C, a cell 
from the epidermis of the mid-rib of Tradescantia zebrina, in its natural condi¬ 
tion on the right, and plasmolyzed by a salt solution on the left; g, space left by 
the recedence of the cytoplasm from the wall; the plasma membrane can now be 
seen as a delicate membrane bounding the shrunken protoplast. All highly mag¬ 
nified. (Stevens.) 

portions of a plant and also in seeds, and other regions given up to 
the storage of starch. Their function is to build up reserve starch 
from sugar and other carbohydrates as well as to change the reserve 
starch back into sugar when it is needed for the growth of the plant. 















70 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


They are only evident after properly fixing and staining cells con¬ 
taining them. 

Chloroplastids are plastids found in cells exposed to light and con¬ 
tain the green pigment, chlorophyll. 

Chromoplastids are plastids found in cells independent of their 
relation to light or darkness and contain a yellow, orange or red 
pigment called chromophyll. 

CELL FORMATION AND REPRODUCTION 

The cells of plants have all been derived from preexisting cells. 
In the bacteria and many other low forms of plant life, the division 
of the cell always results in reproduction; in higher forms, however, 
it merely increases the size of the individual and so is a phenomenon 
of growth. 

There are two kinds of cells formed by plants, viz.: asexual and 
sexual . Both of these are endowed with the possibilities of repro¬ 
duction, although the former are frequently limited to the process 
of growth. 

Reproduction is the power possessed by an organism of giving rise 
to new individuals. This may take place through the agency of 
either asexual or sexual cells and is accordingly asexual or sexual in 
character. Whenever a union of cells or their protoplasmic con¬ 
tents takes place the process is called “sexual reproduction;” if, 
however, there is a mere separation of a cell or cells from an indi¬ 
vidual which later form a new organism, the process is termed 
“asexual or vegetative reproduction.” 

There are four modes of asexual reproduction, viz.: Fission , 
Gemmation , Free Cell Formation and Rejuvenescence. 

Fission. —This is the separation of a cell into two equal halves, 
each of which may grow to the size of the original parent cell from 
which it was derived. Fission is seen in the reproduction of bac¬ 
teria, growth of many algae and the formation of tissues of higher 
plants. 

Gemmation or Budding. —This is the method of reproduction 
common among yeasts. The cell forms a protuberance called a 
bud which increases in size until it equals the size of the cell which 
formed it and then becomes detached, although frequently not until 
it has developed other buds and these still others. 


VEGETABLE CYTOLOGY 


71 


Free Cell Formation. —This is a type of reproduction in which the 
nucleus and protoplasm become separated into two or more masses 
each of which forms a cell wall about itself. Seen in formation of 
ascospores within ascus of Ascomycetes and spores within spore cases 
of molds. 

Rejuvenescence. —In this mode of reproduction the protoplasm 
of the cell becomes rounded out, escapes by rupture of the cell wall, 
forms cilia and moves about as a zoospore . Later it looses its cilia, 
develops a cell wall and passes into a resting condition. Under 
favorable circumstances it grows into a new organism. It is found 
in (Edogonium , Ectocarpus, etc. 

There are two kinds of sexual reproduction, viz.: Conjugation and 
Fertilization. In both of these the sexual cells called gametes or 
their nuclei come together and their protoplasm blends to form a 
new cell. This is the common method seen in higher plants. 

Conjugation. —A union of two gametes, alike in character, the 
product being a zygote or zygospore. This method of reproduction is 
seen in the molds, Spirogyra, Zygnema and Diatoms. 

Fertilization. —A union of two unlike gametes or their nuclei, the 
product being an oospore. One gamete, the male sexual cell, is 
smaller and active, while the other, the female sexual cell, is larger 
and passive. This process is seen among the higher and many of 
the lower plants. 

INDIRECT NUCLEAR DIVISION (MITOSIS OR KARYOKINESIS) 

This is the general method of division seen in the formation of 
tissues of higher plants. 

The process begins in the nucleus and ends with the formation of 
a cell wall dividing the new- formed cells. 

When we examine a cell in its resting stage we find the nucleus 
more or less spherical in shape, surrounded by a nuclear membrane 
and containing a nuclear network , nuclear sap and one or more 
nucleoli. The nuclear network consists of a colorless network of 
linin adhering to which are numerous minute granules called chro¬ 
matin which take the stain of a basic dye. Surrounding the nucleus 
is the cytoplasm. 

As the cell commences to divide, the nucleus elongates and the 


72 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 



Fig. 34. —Semi-diagrammatic representation of nuclear and cell-division, a, 
resting cell ready to begin division; b, the nuclear reticulum is assuming the form 
of a thickened thread, and the cytoplasm at opposite poles is becoming thread¬ 
like to form the spindle fibers; c, the. nuclear thread has divided longitudinally 
through the middle, and the spindle fibers have become more definite; d, the nu¬ 
clear membrane and the nucleolus have disappeared, and the nuclear thread has 
become segmented into chromosomes which are assembling at the equator 01 the 
cell. All of the phases of division thus far are called prophases . e , the metaphase, 
where the longitudinal halves of the chromosomes are being drawn apart pre¬ 
paratory to their journey toward the opposite poles; /, the anaphase, or move¬ 
ment of the chromosomes toward the poles, is about completed, connecting 
fibers extend from pole to pole; g, telophase where the chromosomes have begun 
to spin out in the form of a nuclear reticulum. The connecting fibers have begun 
to thicken in the equatorial plane; h, the connecting fibers have spread out and 
come into contact with the wall of the mother cell in the equatorial plane, and 
the thickening of the fibers throughout this plane has made a complete cell plate 
within which the dividing wall will be produced; i, a nuclear membrane has been 
formed about each daughter nucleus, and the dividing cell-wall is completed. 
The two daughter cells are now ready to grow to the size of the parent cell in a, 
when the daughter nuclei will appear as does the nucleus there. All highly mag¬ 
nified. (Stevens.) 


















VEGETABLE CYTOLOGY 


73 


I 

/finin threads of the nuclear reticulum shorten, drawing the chro¬ 
matin granules together into a thickened twisted chromatic thread. 
This thread splits transversely and thus becomes divided into a 
number of rods termed chromosomes. Each of these then splits into 
two longitudinal halves that may be termed the daughter-chromo¬ 
somes. They lie within the nuclear cavity united by delicate threads. 
There now begins a phenomenon concerned with the cytoplasm 
which is primarily a process of spindle formation. The granular 
cytoplasm accumulates at the poles of the elongated nucleus forming 
the cytoplasmic caps . Presently it begins to show a fibrillar struc¬ 
ture, the threads extending outward around the periphery of the 
nucleus forming an umbrella-like arrangement of fibers from both 
cytoplasmic caps. With the formation of fibers comes a breaking 
down of the nuclear membrane and in consequence the fibers enter 
the nuclear cavity and organize the spindle. Some of the fibers 
become attached to the split chromosomes and push, draw or pull 
them to the equatorial plate , halfway between the poles. Mean¬ 
while the nucleolus disappears. As the chromosomes line up at the 
equatorial plate their daughter halves are drawn apart in V-shaped 
fashion. The split extends and eventually one daughter-chromo¬ 
some is drawn to one pole and the remaining half to the other. At 
the respective poles the daughter chromosomes form a dense com¬ 
pact knot. A cell membrane, composed of material contributed 
largely through the shrinking of the spindle fibers, is now formed 
through the middle of the spindle. This soon splits to form a thin 
vacuole lying between the two membranes (the plasma membranes). 
Presently there appears within the vacuole and between the mem¬ 
branes a carbohydrate substance. On either side of this deposit the 
plasma membranes form a cellulose membrane. The flattened 
vacuole extends toward the periphery and ultimately a complete 
cell wall is formed. 

The dense compact knots of chromosomes at the poles of the 
spindle, that are to form the daughter-nuclei, now begin to expand 
and clear mesh-like spaces to appear between the expanding threads. 
As this process advances the chromosome substance becomes dis¬ 
tributed throughout the nuclear cavity. It is soon possible to dis¬ 
tinguish the chromatin from the linin. Eventually an irregular 


74 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


network of linin carrying chromatin granules is formed through the 
area of the nucleus. A nuclear membrane also is formed and the 
nucleolus reappears. The spindle fibers disappear. The daughter- 
nuclei increase in size and each daughter-cell formed by this process 
now assumes the resting stage. 

NON-PROTOPLASMIC CELL CONTENTS 

i. Sugars. —Sugars comprise a group of crystalline substances 
found in the cell sap of many plants either free or in combination 
with glucosides. They may be divided into two main groups: 
monosaccharoses and disaccharoses. To the former belong simple 
sugars containing two to nine atoms of carbon, which are known 
respectively as bioses, trioses, tetroses, pentoses, hexoses, etc. Of 
these the, hexoses (CeH^Os) are the most important and of wide 
distribution. Examples of the hexoses found in drug plants are: 
(a) dextrose (grape sugar), found in the leaves, stems, fruits, sprout¬ 
ing grains and nectaries of flowers of nearly all plants; ( b ) fructose 
(levulose or fruit-sugar), commonly associated with dextrose; ( c ) 
d-mannose, found in the saccharine exudation of the Manna Ash 
(Fraxinus Ornus ); and ( d ) sorbinose, found in ripe Mountain Ash 
berries. Upon evaporating the sap or treating the parts containing 
these principles with alcohol they can be crystallized out. 

Fliickiger’s Micro-chemic Test for the determination of different 
kinds of sugars: Dissolve a small portion of copper tartrate in a 
drop of sodium hydrate on a glass slide; in this place the section and 
put on the cover slip. If fructose is present cuprous oxide crystals 
will at once be formed without warming. If grape sugar is also 
present a gentle warming will produce another crop of reddish-yellow 
crystals. If dextrin be present continued heating will still further 
augment the number of crystals. Cane sugar and mannite, on the 
other hand, will respond negatively to this test. The zymase of 
yeasts is capable of fermenting dextrose, levulose and d-mannose 
forming carbon dioxide and alcohol. Sorbinose is claimed to be 
non-fermentable. 

The disaccharoses, having the chemical formula of C12H22O11, in¬ 
clude sucrose, maltose, trehalose, melibiose, touranose and agavose. 
Of these sucrose is the most important. It is found in the stems of 


VEGETABLE CYTOLOGY 


75 


sugar cane, sorghum, corn and Mexican grass; in many fleshy roots 
notably the sugar beet; in the sap of the sugar maple and various 
palms including Cocos nucifera, Phoenix sylvestris , Arenga saccharif- 
era\ in various fruits, as apples, cherries, figs, etc., in the nectaries 
of certain flowers; in honey; and in a number of seeds. It crystal¬ 
lizes in monoclinic prisms or pyramids. When sections of plant parts 
containing cane sugar are placed for a few seconds in a saturated 
solution of copper sulphate, then quickly rinsed in water, trans¬ 
ferred to a solution of i part of KOH in i part of water, and heated 
to boiling, the cells containing the sugar take on a sky-blue color. 
Invertase of the yeast reduces cane sugar to dextrose and levulose 
and zymase of the same plant ferments these forming carbon dioxide 
and alcohol. 

Maltose is fo\md in the germinating grains of barley and other 
cereals as a product of the action of the ferment diastase on starch. 
It reduces Fehling’s solution, forming cuprous oxide, but one-third 
less with equal weights. 

Trehalose or mycose is found in ergot, Boletus edulis, the Oriental 
Trehala and various other fungi. 

Melibiose is formed with fructose upon hydrolyzing the trisac¬ 
charose melitose which occurs in the molasses of sugar manufacture 
and in Australian manna. 

Touranose is produced upon hydrolyzing melizitose, a trisaccha¬ 
rose which occurs in Persian manna, and 

Agavose is found in the cell sap of the American Century Plant, 
Agave americana. 

2. Starch. —Starch is a carbohydrate having the chemical formula 
of (C 6 Hio05) n which is generally found as the first visible product 
of photosynthesis in most green plants. It is found in the chloro- 
plasts and chromatophores of green parts in the form of minute 
granules. This kind of starch is known as Assimilation Starch. 
Assimilation starch is dissolved during darkness within the chloro- 
plasts by the action of ferments and passes into solution as a glucose 
which is conveyed downward to those parts of the plant requiring 
food. In its descent some of it is stored up in medullary ray cells, 
and in various parts of the xylem, phloem, pith and cortex in the 
form of small’ grains. Considerable, however, is carried down to 


76 PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 

the underground parts, such as rhizomes, tubers, corms, bulbs 
or roots, where the leucoplasts store it in the form of larger-sized 
grains called Reserve Starch. This type of starch is generally 
characteristic for the plant in which it is found. It constitutes 
stored-up food for the plant during that period of the year when the 
vegetative processes are more or less dormant. 

Structure and Composition of Starch. —Starch grains vary in 
shape from spheroidal to oval to chonchoidal to polygonal. They 



FiG. 35.—Cell of Pellionia Dayeauana, showing starch-grains. The black, 
crescent-shaped body on the end of each grain is the leucoplast. Greatly enlarged. 
(Gager.) 

are composed of layers of soluble carbohydrate material and prob¬ 
ably other substances called “lamella ,” separated from each other by 
a colloidal substance resembling a mucilage in its behavior toward 
aniline dyes. They contain a more or less distinct highly refractile 
point of origin or growth called the <l hilum which also takes the 
stain of an aniline dye. . The layers of carbohydrate material stain 
variously/ blue, indigo, purple, etc., with different strengths of 
iodine solutions. Each grain is covered with a stainable elastic 
membrane. 






VEGETABLE CYTOLOGY 


77 


Starch grains may be grouped, according to the condition in 
which they are found in the cells of storage regions into three 
kinds, viz.: simple starch grains , compound starch grains and fill 
starch grains. 

Simple starch grains are such as occur singly. Compound starch 
grains occur in groups of two, three, four, five, six or more and are 
designated as two, three, four, five, six, etc., compound, according 
to the number of grains making up the group. Fill starch grains 
are small grains filling up the spaces between the larger grains in 
storage cells. These are common in commercial starches. 

Method of Examining Reserve Starches. —Many of the reserve 
starches are used commercially, such as potato, corn, rice^ maranta, 
oat, wheat, sago, tapioca, etc., and it frequently becomes necesssary 
for the microscopist to determine their purity or their presence in a 
sample of food or drug. The following characteristics should be 
noted in determining the identity or source of the starch. 

1. The shape of the grain. 

2. Whether simple or compound or both; if compound, the number 
or range in numbers of grains composing it. 

3. The size of the grain in microns. 

4. The position of the hilum, if distinct; whether central or excen- 
tric (outside of the center). 

5. The shape of the hilum and the degree to which it is often 
fissured. 

6. The nature of the lamellae, whether distinct or indistinct; if 
distinct whether concentric (surrounding the hilum) or eccentric 
(apparently ending in the margin and not surrounding the hilum), 
or both, as in potato starch. 

7. The color of the grains when stained with dilute iodine solu¬ 
tions; whether indigo, blue, purple, red or yellowish-red, etc. 

8. The appearance under polarized light. 

9. The temperature at which the paste is formed. 

10. The consistency of the paste. 


78 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 






Fig. 36 —A, wheat starch grains; B, rye starch; C, barley starch; D, potato 
starch; E, Maranta starch; F, Sago starch. Explanation in text. 









VEGETABLE CYTOLOGY 


79 


Characteristics of Important Commercial Starches 


Potato Starch (Solatium tuberosum) 

Mostly simple, conchoidal or ellip¬ 
soidal, with occasional spheroidal 
and two- to three-compound grains. 

Size: 5 to 125/x 

Hilum: circular, at smaller end of 
grain. 

Lamellae: concentric and eccentric. 

Polarization cross very distinct; beau¬ 
tiful play of colors with selenite 
plate. 

Maranta Starch (Maranta 
arundinacea) 

Ellipsoidal to ovoid. 

Simple. 

Size: 10 to 65 n. 

Hilum: a transverse or crescent¬ 
shaped cleft in center or near 
broad end of grain. 

Lamellae: usually indistinct. 

Polarization cross very distinct; fine 
play of colors with selenite plate. 

Com Starch (Zea Mays) 

Polygonal to rounded. 

10 to 35^. Most grains over 15^ 
in diameter. 

Simple. 

Hilum: circular or a two- to five- 
rayed cleft. 

Lamellae: indistinct. 

Polarization cross distinct but no 
marked play of color with selenite 
plate. 

Rice Starch (Oryza sativa ) 

Polygonal.. 

2 to 10/i in diameter. 

Simple or two- to many-compound. 

Hilum: usually indistinct, occasion¬ 
ally a central cleft. 

Lamellae: indistinct. 


Polarization cross distinct but no 
play of colors with selenite plate. 

Wheat Starch (Triticum sativum) 

Circular grains appearing lenticular 
shaped on edge view; simple. 

Large grains 28 to 45^ in diameter. 

Hilum: Central, appearing as dot, 
but usually indistinct. 

Lamellae: generally indistinct, when 
present concentric. 

Polarization cross indistinct; no 
play of colors with selenite plate. 

Rye Starch (Secale cereale) 

Grains having a similar shape to 
those of wheat starch but many 
larger; simple. 

Large grains 20 to 52^ in diameter. 

Hilum: a star-shaped central cleft or 
indistinct in some grains. 

Lamellae: concentric. 

Polarization cross distinct. 

Barley Starch (Hordeum distichon) 

Grains having a similar shape to 
those of wheat starch but fre¬ 
quently tending to bulge on one 
side and so appear sub-reniform; 
large grains smaller; simple. 
Grains appear elliptical to lemon 
shaped in edge view. Large 
grains usually 18 to 25/x, occa¬ 
sionally up to 30JU in length. 

Hilum: centric or circular or cleft, 
often indistinct. 

Lamellae: concentric, often indistinct. 

Polarization cross distinct. 

Buckwheat Starch (Fagopyrum 
esculentum) 

Grains simple and compound. 

Simple grains polygonal or rounded 
polygonal. 


8o 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 



O o 

-xr O o 0 ° * 
0 DO rs ° o 0 ^ 

00 a 0 A°6& 0 & C 





FiG. 37.—G f corn starch; H, rice stareh; I, corn dextrin; J, pea starch; K, 
cassava starch; L, bean starch. Explanation in text. 


VEGETABLE CYTOLOGY 


8l 


Compound grains more or less rod¬ 
shaped. 

2 to i5ju in diameter. 

Hilum: central. 

Lamellae: generally indistinct. 

Polarization cross distinct. 

Cassava Starch (Manihot 
utilissima) 

Grains rounded, truncated on one 
side. 

Simple or two- to three- or four- to 
eight-compound. 

6 to 35 n in diameter. 

Hilum: central, circular or triangu¬ 
lar with radiating clefts frequently. 

Lamellae: indistinct. 

Polarization cross prominent. , 

Bean Starch (Phaseolus vulgaris ) 

Ovoid, ellipsoidal or reniform shaped- 
simple grains, occasionally ob¬ 
scurely 3- or 4-sided. 

25 to 60/x in length. Generally from 
3°~35m* 

Hilum: central, elongated with bran¬ 
ching clefts.# 

Lamellae: distinct, concentric. In 
some indistinct. 

Polarization crosses shaped thus, X 


Pea Starch (Pisum sativum) 

Oval-oblong, ellipticolar sub-reni- 
form. 

1 5 ~ 5 1M in length. Generally from 
20-40/z. 

Hilum: similar to that of bean 
starch but less cleft or simply 
elongated. 

Lamellae: distinct, concentric. 

Polarization crosses similar to bean 
starch. 

Canna Starch (Canna edulis and other 
species of Canna ) 

Broadly elliptical, flattened, with 
beak or obtuse angle at one end. 

50 to 135/z in length. 

Hilum: excentric near narrower end. 

Lamellae: concentric and excentric. 

Polarization cross very distinct; fine 
play of colors with selenite plate. 

Sago Starch (Metroxylon Sagu) 

Ovoid, muller shaped, or irregularly 
3 or 4 sided with rounded angles. 
Some more or less gelatinised. 

Simple or 2, 3 or 4-compound 

30-60^ long. 

Hilum: eccentric often altered by 
gelatinisation. 

Lamellae: Excentric and concentric. 

Polarization cross distinct. 


4. Dextrin.—Dextrin is a carbohydrate made from starch (chiefly 
from corn or potato starch) by the application of heat (yellow 
dextrin) or by treatment with both heat and acids (white dextrin). 
It forms a paste with water, the yellow variety tending to swell up 
and dissolve much more readily than the white. When examined 
microscopically in alcohol mounts, the grains, while conforming in 
general outline to those of the type of starch from which the dextrin 
was prepared, nevertheless show more conspicuous striations and 
clefts. Corn dextrin shows distinct striations, whereas striations 
6 


82 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


in corn starch are absent. The grains take on a red coloration with 
iodine solutions. 

5. Amylodextrin. —This is a carbohydrate intermediate in proper¬ 
ties between starch and dextrin. It occurs in the form of small ir¬ 
regularly shaped granules, in Mace, that take on a reddish brown to 
reddish violet color with iodine solutions. 

6. Inulin. —Inulin is a carbohydrate isomeric with starch which 
has the chemical formula of Ci 2 H 2 oOio. It is found dissolved in the 
cell sap of many plants, especially those of the Composites. If pieces 
of a plant part containing this substance be placed directly in alcohol 
for at least a week, then sectioned and mounted in alcohol, sph aero- 
crystals of inulin will be seen applied to the walls of the cells. When 
these sections are treated with a 25 per cent, solution of alpha 
naphthol and 2 or 3 drops of strong H2SO4, the sphaerocrystals will 
dissolve with a violet color. Fehling’s solution is not reduced by 
inulin. 

7. Hesperidin. —Hesperidin is a glucoside having the chemical 
formula of C 2 iH 26 0 i 2 . Like inulin it occurs in solution within the 
cell sap. It is found in abundance in the Rutaceae family but occurs 
in many other plants. If sections of alcoholic material containing 
this substance such as Buchu leaves or unripe orange peel, are 
mounted in alcohol and examined, sphaerocrystals will be seen. If 
these are then treated with a drop of alpha naphthol solution and 2 
or 3 drops of strong H 2 SC>4, they dissolve with a yellow color. The 
same coloration is evident when 5 per cent, solution of KOH is 
substituted for the alpha naphthol and H 2 S 0 4 . 

8. Strophanthin. —This is a glucoside occurring in the cell sap of 
the endosperm of Strophanthus Kombe, S. hispidus and other species 
of Strophanthus. If sections of fresh Strophanthus seeds are 
mounted in a drop of water and then transferred to a drop of con¬ 
centrated H 2 SC>4, the cells containing strophanthin will assume a 
bright green color. 

9. Salicin. —Salicin is a glucoside occurring in the cell sap of the 
bark and leaves of the Willows and Poplars. Sections of these 
mounted in concentrated H 2 S 0 4 will show a red coloration in the 
cells containing this substance. If water be added a red powder is 
thrown down. 


VEGETABLE CYTOLOGY 


83 


10. Saponin, another glucoside, found in f Soap Bark, Senega, 
Saponaria and other drugs also takes a red color with strong H 2 S 0 4 . 

11. Coniferin is a glucoside, occuring in the cell sap of the spruce, 
pine, and other plants of the Coniferce. If sections containing it are 
first treated with a solution of phenol and then with sulphuric acid, 
the cells containing it take on a deep blue color. 

12. Digitoxin, a glucoside found in the leaves of Digitalis purpurea, 
is colored green with hydrochloric acid. 

The glucosides are very numerous. Those listed above represent 
but a few examples. They arise in the cell sap of plants containing 
them as products of constructive metabolism (anabolism) and are 
thought by many to have the function of protecting plants against 
the ravages of animals. Some are known to serve as reserve food. 
All glucosides are characterized by the property of being split up 
into glucose and other substances when acted upon by a ferment, 
dilute acids or alkalies. 

13. Alkaloids. —Chemically, these are basic carbonaceous amines 
which like glucosides are products of metabolism. Their method 
of formation in plants is uncertain. Some hold that they are kata- 
bolic products, resulting from the breaking down of tissues, while 
others believe them anabolic in character. They undoubtedly serve 
as defensive agents in plants containing them on account of their 
bitter taste and poisonous properties. 

Properties of Alkaloids 

Alkaloids are invariably found in combination with acids forming 
salts which dissolve in water or alcohol. They are composed of 
carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen. Some contain oxygen. They are 
precipitated from saline solutions by the addition of alkalies. They 
are mostly colorless and crystallizable. They can be precipitated 
by one or more of the following alkaloidal reagents: tannic acid, 
gold chloride, phospho-molybdic acid, picric acid and potassio- 
mercuric iodide. 

Examples of Alkaloids 

Strychnine. —This alkaloid, with a chemical formula of C21H22N2- 
0 2 , occurs in the seeds of Strychnos nux vomica, Strychnos Ignatii 
and other species of Strychnos. When sections of strychnine con- 


84 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


taining seeds, previously treated with petroleum ether and absolute 
alcohol, are mounted in a solution of i Gm. ammonium vanadate 
in ioo mils of sulphuric acid, they take on a violet-red color which 
later changes to brown. 

Veratrine.—This alkaloid, with a composition of C37H53NO11, 
is found in various parenchyma cells of Veratrum album. If sections 
of the rhizome or roots are mounted in 2 drops of water and a drop 
of concentrated H 2 S 0 4 and examined microscopically on a glass 
slide, the cell contents and walls of the cells which contain this sub¬ 
stance first take a yellow color which soon changes to an orange-red 
and then to a violet. 

Nicotine.—This is a volatile alkaloid having the formula of 
C10H14N2 which is found in the Nicotiana genus of the Nightshade 
family. Sections of tobacco leaves or stems mounted in dilute 
Lugol’s solution will show first a carmine-red color and then a red¬ 
dish-brown precipitate which in time loses its color. 

Caffeine.—This alkaloid, with a formula of C 8 HioN 4 02 + H 2 0 , 
occurs in Thea, Cojfea, Cola , Sterculea, Ilex and Neea. If thin sec¬ 
tions containing it are placed on a glass slide in 2 or 3 drops of con¬ 
centrated hydrochloric acid and gently heated and then 2 or 3 drops 
of gold chloride solution are added, the sections then pushed to the 
side and the liquid allowed to evaporate, slender yellowish branch¬ 
ing needles of caffeine gold chloride will be seen to separate. 

Cocaine.—This narcotic alkaloid, having the formula Ci 7 H 2 iN 0 4 , 
is found in the leaves of Erythroxylon Coca and E. Truxillense. If 
sections of these leaves are prepared in the same manner as indicated 
for those containing Caffeine, but platinum chloride solution substi¬ 
tuted for that of gold chloride, large feathers or plumes of cocaine- 
chloro-platinate will be seen separating. 

Aconitine (C 3 3H 43 NOi2) is found in various parts of Aconitum 
Napellus. It is particularly abundant in the tuberous root of this 
plant. If sections of aconite root are treated on a glass slide with 
solution of potassium permanganate, a red precipitate of aconitine 
permanganate will appear in the cells containing this alkaloid. 

Colchicine (C22H25NO6).—This alkaloid occurs in the corm and 
seeds of Colchicum autumnale. It is very abundant in the cells 
surrounding the fibro-vascular bundles of the corm. If a section of 


VEGETABLE CYTOLOGY 


85 


either corm or seed be treated with a mixture of 1 part of H 2 S 0 4 
and 3 parts of H 2 0 , the cells containing colchicine will be colored 
yellow. If a crystal of KN 0 3 then be added the color will change 
to a brownish-violet. 

10. Gluco-alkaloids. —These are compounds intermediate in 
nature between alkaloids and glucosides, having characteristics of 
each. To this group belongs solanine (C 28 H 47 NOn) which is found 
in Solarium nigrum, Solanum Dulcamara, Solanum carolinense and 
other species of the Solanacea. When sections of those plant parts 
which contain this constituent are mounted in a solution of 1 part 
of ammonium vanadate in 1000 parts of a mixture of 49 parts of 
sulphuric acid with 18 parts of water, the cells containing solanin 
take on a yellow color which changes successively to orange, various 
shades of red, blue-violet, grayish-blue and then disappears. 

14. Asparagine (C 4 H 8 N 2 + H 2 0 ).—This is an amino compound of 
crystalline nature which occurs widely in the plant kingdom. It 
has been found in certain of the slime molds and fungi, in the roots 
of Althaea officinalis and Atropa belladonna, in young shoots of 
Asparagus, in the seeds of Castanea dentata, in the tubers of Solanum 
tuberosum and varieties of Dahlia, and is known to play an important 
part in metabolism. Stevens claims that proteids are reduced for 
the most part to asparagine during seed germination. 1 If thick sec¬ 
tions are cut from a plant part containing this substance and 
mounted in alcohol, rhombohedral crystals of asparagin in the form 
of plates will be deposited upon the evaporation of the alcohol. If 
to these a few drops of a saturated solution of asparagine are added 
the crystals already formed will increase in size. To get satisfactory 
results the saturated solution must be of the same temperature as 
the mount. 

15. Calcium Oxalate. —This substance occurs in many plants 
always in the form of crystals. It is apparently formed by the reac¬ 
tion of salts of calcium, which have found their way into the cell 
sap from the soil, with oxalic acid which is manufactured by the 
plant. Calcium oxalate crystals dissolve readily in mineral acids 
without effervescence. They are insoluble in acetic acid or water. 

1 Stevens’ Plant Anatomy, 3d Edit., p. 189. 


86 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


These crystals are classified according to form and belong either to 
the monoclinic or tetragonal system (See Fig. 38). 


A 


A A 


V 


A 


* * 


E 



Fig. 38.—Various forms of calcium oxalate crystals. A, styloids from the 
bark of Quillaja saponaria; B, rosette aggregate from rhizome of Rheum officinale; 
C, raphide from the bulb of Urginea maritime; D, crystal fiber as seen in longi¬ 
tudinal section in either the xylem or phloem regions of Glycyrrhiza; E, micro¬ 
crystals (crystal sand) isolated from the parenchyma of Belladonna root; F, 
monoclinic prisms; and G, twin-crystals from leaves of Hyoscyamus niger. All 
highly magnified. 


Crystals belonging to the Mono clinic System and Examples of Drugs 
Containing them: 

1. Solitary—Hyoscyamus, Acer Spicatum, Viburnum Prunifolium. 

2. Rosette Aggregates—-Althaea, Gossypii Cortex, Stramonium, 
Granatum, Rheum, Fceniculum, Viburnum. 

3. Columnar (Styloids)—Quillaja. 









































VEGETABLE CYTOLOGY 87 

4. Raphides—Convallaria, Sarsaparilla, Veratrum, Scilla, 
Phytolacca. 

5. Micro-crystals (Crystal sand)—Bellandonnae Radix, Cinchona, 
Stramonium, Phytolacca, Capsicum. 

6. Crystal Fibers—Cascara Sagrada, Prunus Virginiana, Gly- 
cyrrhiza, Aspidosperma. 

7. Membrane Crystals—Aurantii Dulcis Cortex, Limonis Cortex, 
Condurango. 

Solitary crystals , usually in the form of rhombohedra, occasionally 
in twin crystals, occur as sharp angular bodies, each one often com¬ 
pletely filling up the lumen of a cell. 

Rosette aggregates consist of numerous small prisms or pyramids, 
or hemihedral crystals arranged around a central axis, appearing 
like a rosette or star. 

Columnar crystals or styloids are elongated prisms. 

Raphides are groups of acicular or needle-shaped crystals, which 
occur in long thin-walled cells containing mucilage. They are 
more frequently found in Monocotyledons than in any other plant 
group. Micro-crystals (sphenoidal micro-crystals or crystal sand) 
are minute arrow-shaped or deltoid forms completely filling the 
parenchyma cells in which they occur and giving these a grayish- 
black appearance. 

Crystal fibers are longitudinal rows of superimposed parenchyma 
cells each of which contains a single monoclinic prism or rosette 
aggregate. Crystal fibers are found adjacent to sclerenchyma fibers 
such as bast or woody fibers. 

Membrane crystals are monoclinic prisms, each of which is sur¬ 
rounded by a wall or membrane. In the process of formation a 
crystal first is formed in the cell sap and then numerous oil globules 
make their appearance in the protoplasm surrounding it; later some 
of the walls of the cell grow around the crystal and completely 
envelop it. 

16. Cystoliths. —Cystoliths are clustered bodies formed by the 
thickening of the cell wall at a certain point and subsequent in¬ 
growth which latter forms a cellulose skeleton consisting of a stalk 
and body. Silica is subsequently deposited on the stalk while 
calcium carbonate is piled up on the body in layers, forming an irregu- 


88 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


lar spheroidal or ellipsoidal deposit. These structures are abun¬ 
dantly found in the plants of the Nettle Family and constitute a 
leading peculiarity of the same (see Fig. 87). 

Hair cystoliths differ from the average type in that they are 
devoid of a stalk. Such are seen in the non-glandular hairs of 
Cannabis sativa. 

The calcium carbonate incrustation of a cystolith dissolves with 
effervescence on the addition of a mineral or organic acid. 

17. Silica. —Silica (Si02) occurs in a number of plants either as 
an incrustation in the cell wall as in Diatoms, the Equisetinea and 
Graminea or more rarely in the form “silica bodies” such as are 
found in certain Palms, Orchids and Tristicha. It is insoluble in 
all the acids except hydroflouric. It may be obtained in pure form 
by placing tissue containing it in a drop or two of concentrated 
sulphuric acid and after a time treating with successively stronger 
solutions of chromic acid (starting with 25 per cent.) and then wash¬ 
ing with water and alcohol. 

18. Tannins.—Tannins are amorphous substances occurring in 
plants having an astringent taste, and turning dark blue or green 
with iron salts. They occur in greatest quantity in the bark of 
exogens, and in gall formations. They are soluble in water, alcohol 
glycerine, and a mixture of alcohol and ether. They are almost 
insoluble in absolute ether and chloroform. They give insoluble 
precipitates with organic bases such as alkaloids and with most of 
the salts of the heavy metals. 

According to their behavior with solution of iron chloride or 
other soluble iron salts two kinds of tannic acid are recognized: (a) 
a form of tannic acid giving a blue color, as that which is found in 
Rhus, Castanea, Granatum, Galla, etc.; ( b ) another tannic acid 
producing a green coloration, as that found in Krameria, Kino, 
Mangrove bark, Quercus, Catechu, etc. 

If sections are placed in a 7 per cent, solution of copper acetate 
for a week or more, then placed on a slide in 0.5 per cent, aqueous 
solution of ferric chloride, and after a while-washed with water and 
mounted in glycerin, an insoluble brownish precipitate will be pro¬ 
duced in those cells containing tannin. 


VEGETABLE CYTOLOGY 


89 


19. Proteins. —Proteins are complex nitrogenous substances 
forming the most important of the reserve foods of plants. They are 
found in all the living and many of the dead cells of plants, although 
most abundant in seeds. Protoplasm, itself, is composed largely 
of these substances. They all contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, 
nitrogen and sulphur, and many contain in addition phosphorus. 
They are formed by the addition of nitrogen, sulphur and fre¬ 
quently phosphorus to elements of grape sugar. The nitrogen, 
sulphur and phosphorous elements are obtained from nitrates, 
sulphates and phosphates which are dissolved in the water taken 
in through the roots. The names of proteins recorded may be 
found by the hundreds. These are grouped into chemical classes, 
the most important of which from the standpoint of their occurrence 
in plants are the globulins , albumens , glutelins, nucleins , and gliadins. 
Of these the globulins are found most extensively. Globulins are 
insoluble in water but soluble in sodium chloride solutions. They 
do not coagulate upon the application of heat. 

Albumens are soluble in water and coagulate with heat. 

Glutelins are insoluble in water, sodium chloride solution and 
strong alcohol. 

Gliadins are nearly or wholly insoluble in water but soluble in 
70 to 90 per cent, alcohol. 

Nucleins are insoluble in water but soluble in akaline solutions. 

The following tests are of value in determining the presence of 
proteins. 

Lugol’s solution stains proteins yellow or brown. 

Concentrated nitric acid stains proteins yellow. This color 
becomes deeper upon the addition of ammonia water. 

Million’s reagent stains proteins a brick-red. 

Concentrated solution of nickel sulphate colors proteins yellow 
or blue. 

If sections are placed for an hour or two in a solution of 1 Gm. of 
sodium phospho-molybdate in 90 Gm. of distilled water and 5 
Gm. of nitric acid, the proteid substances appear as yellowish 
granules. 

The globulins (phytoglobulins) frequently occur in bodies called 
“aleurone grains.” 


go 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


ALEURONE GRAINS 

Aleurone grains are small bodies found in seeds particularly those 
containing oil, and like starch grains often are characteristic of the 
genus or species. Each aleurone grain consists of a ground sub¬ 
stance (composed of amorphous proteid matter soluble in water, 
dilute alkali or acid), in which are usually embedded one or more 
phyto-globulins (insoluble in cold water, but soluble in less than i per 
cent, solution of an alkali, in dilute HC 1 and acetic acid), one or more 
transparent globular globoids composed of Ca and Mg phosphate 



Fig. 39. —To show aleurone grains. A, cells from cotyledon of seed of garden 
bean; n, aleurone grains; m, starch; B, cells from endosperm of castor bean; a, 
a, aleurone grain; l, ground substance; k, phytoglobulin; 1, globoid. (A, After 
Sachs; B, after Frank.) 

(insoluble in water and dilute potash solution but soluble in 1 per 
cent, acetic acid solution), and frequently a crystal of calcium 
oxalate , the whole being enclosed by a protoplasmic membrane (so¬ 
luble in water). (Fig. 39.B.) 

The proteins insoluble in the cell-sap water are made soluble for 
translocation by means of proteolytic enzymes which change them 
into proteoses and peptones. 

20. Mucilages and gums are those substances occurring in plants 
which are soluble in water or swell in it, and which are precipitated 
by alcohol. 

Mucilage is formed in plants in several ways, viz.; either as a 
product of the protoplasm, as a disorganization product of some of 
the carbohydrates, as a secondary thickening or addition to the cell 
wall, or as a metamorphosis of it. In the first two cases the mucilage 
is called cell-content mucilage ; in the last two, membrane mucilage. 



VEGETABLE CYTOLOGY 


91 


Mucilage is stored as reserve food in the tubers of Salep and 
many other Orchids and also in the seeds of some species of the 
Leguminosae. 

Cell-content mucilage has been found in the leaves of Aloe, 
the rhizomes of Triticum, the bulb scales of Squill and Onion and 
in certain cells of many other Monocotyledons, especially those 
containing rap hides. 

Membrane mucilage has been observed in Barosma, Ulmus , 
Althcea , Linum , Astragalus , and Acacia species, in the Blue-green 
Algae, and many of the Brown and Red Algae. 

When mucilage is collected in the form of an exudate from shrubs 
and trees it constitutes what is termed a gum. Many of these gums 
are used in pharmacy, medicine and the arts. The three most im¬ 
portant from a pharmaceutical standpoint are: Acacia, yielded by 
Acacia Senegal and other species of Acacia ; Tragacanth, yielded by 
Astragalus gummijer and other Asiatic species of Astragalus ; and 
Cherry Gum, obtained from Prunus Cerasus and its varieties. 

Mucilage may be demonstrated in plant tissues containing it by 
placing sections of these in a deep blue solution of methylene-blue 
in equal parts of alcohol, glycerin and water on a glass slide, allowing 
them to remain in the solution for several minutes, then draining 
off the stain and mounting in glycerin. Those cells containing muci¬ 
lage will exhibit bluish contents. 

21. Fixed Oils and Fats.— These are fatty acid-esters of glycerin 
which are found in the vacuoles of cells or formed with the cell 
walls from which they may be liberated as globules upon treating 
sections with chloral hydrate or sulphuric acid or heating them. 
They are quite soluble in ether, chloroform, benzol, acetone and 
volatile oils but insoluble in water, and, with the exception of castor 
oil, insoluble in alcohol. „ They are readily distinguished from the 
volatile oils in that they leave a greasy stain upon paper which does 
not disappear. Fixed oils and fats take a brownish to black color 
with osmic acid, a red color with alkannin or Sudan III and a blue 
color with cyanin. In Vaucheria, the Diatoms and a few of the 
other Thallophytes, fixed oil is formed in the chromatophores in¬ 
stead. of starch as the first visible product of photosynthesis. In 
higher plants it is generally found in storage regions, such as the 


Q2 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


parenchyma of seeds, fruits and the medullary ray cells and paren¬ 
chyma of barks', roots and rhizomes. 

22. Volatile Oils. —-These are volatile odoriferous principles found 
in various parts of numerous plants which arise either as a direct 
product of the protoplasm or through a decomposition of a layer of 
the cell wall which Tschirch designates a “resinogenous layer.” 
They are readily distilled from plants, together with watery vapor, are 
slightly soluble in water, but very soluble in fixed oils, ether, chloro¬ 
form, glacial acetic acid, naphtha, alcohol, benzin and benzol. 
They leave a spot on paper which, however, soon disappears. They 
respond to osmic acid, alkannin, Sudan III, and cyanin stains 
similar to the fixed oils and fats. 

Volatile oils may be grouped into four classes: 

A. Pinenes or Terpenes, containing carbon and hydrogen and 
having the formula of CioHie. Examples: Oil of Turpentine and 
various other volatile oils occurring in coniferous plants. 

B. Oxygenated oils, containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. 
Examples: Oil of cassia and other cinnamons. 

C. Nitrogenated oils, containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen 
with nitrogen (from HCN). Example: Oil of Bitter Almonds. 

D. Sulphurated oils, containing carbon, hydrogen and sulphur. 
Example: Volatile oil of mustard. 

23. Resins, Oleoresins, Gum Resins, and Balsams. —These sub¬ 
stances represent products of metabolism in many plants which are 
formed either normally as Turpentine, Asafoetida, Mastiche, etc., 
or as a result of pathological processes through injury to the plant 
tissues as Styrax, Benzoin, Balsam of Tolu and Peru, etc. They 
occur usually in special cavities such as secretion cells, glands, or 
secretion reservoirs. 

Resins are insoluble in water but mostly soluble in alcohol. They 
combine with alkalies to form soap. Many of them are oxidized 
oils of plants. Examples: Guaiacum, Resina. 

Oleoresins are mixtures of oil and resin. Examples: Terebin- 
thina, Terebinthina Canadensis. 

Gum resins are natural compounds of resin, gum and oil. Ex¬ 
amples: Asafoetida, Myrrha, Cambogia. 


VEGETABLE CYTOLOGY 


93 


Balsams are mixtures of resins with cinnamic or benzoic acid or 
both and generally a volatile oil. Examples: Balsamum Tolu- 
tanum, Styrax, Balsamum Peruvianum. 

If sections of a resin containing plant part are placed in a saturated 
aqueous solution of copper acetate for a week or two and mounted 
in dilute glycerin, the resin will be stained an emerald green. 

24. Pigments. —These are substances which give color to various 
plant parts in which they are found. They occur either in special 
protoplasmic structures, as chloroplasts, chromoplasts or chroma- 
tophores, or dissolved in the cell sap. Of the pigments named 
the following will be considered: Chlorophyll, Xanthophyll, 
Chromophyll, Etiolin, Anthocyanin, Phycocyanin, Phycophaein, 
and Phycoerythrin. 

Chlorophyll is the yellowish-green pigment found in the chloro- 
plastids or chromatophores of leaves or other green parts of plants. 
Its composition is not definitely known although it yields products 
similar to the haemoglobin of the blood when decomposed. Iron 
is known to be essential to its formation. If an equal portion of 
xylene be added to a fresh alcoholic solution of chlorophyll and the 
mixture shaken, the chlorophyll in solution will break up into a 
yellowish and greenish portion. The greenish portion dissolves in 
the xylene which rises forming the upper stratum, while the yellowish 
portion dissolves in the alcohol forming the lower stratum. To this 
isolated greenish portion of chlorophyll has been given the name of 
“ chlorophyllin ” while the yellowish portion has been designated 
“xanthophyll.” 

Chlorophyllin when examined spectroscopically produces absorp¬ 
tion bands in the red, orange, yellow and green of the spectrum, the 
broadest and most distinct band being in the red. 

Chromophyll also called “xanthophyll ” and “carotin ” is the yellow 
or orange pigment found in chromoplastids. By some the term 
carotin is limited to the orange pigment found in the carrot. Sul¬ 
phuric acid forms a blue color with chromophyll. 

Etiolin is a pale yellow pigment which appears when green plants 
are kept for some, time in darkness. It is probably identical with 
xanthophyll. 


94 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Anthocyanins are applied to the blue, purple and red pigments 
which occur in the cell sap. The character of the color is claimed to 
be due to the alkalinity or acidity of the cell sap. 

Phycocyanin is the blue pigment found in the blue-green algae, 
associated with chlorophyll. It is soluble in water. 

Phycophaein is the brown pigment found in the brown algae. 

Phycoerythrin is the red pigment found in many of the red algae. 

The last two are always associated with chlorophyll but frequently 
conceal it. 

25. Latex. —This is an emulsion of varying composition and color 
found in special passages, as latex cells and laticiferous vessels of 
many plants. It may cofttain starch, sugar, proteid, oil, enzymes, 
tannins, alkaloids, gum, resins, caoutchouc and mineral salts. The 
color may be absent as in Oleander ; whitish as in Asclepias, Papaver , 
Hevea, and Apocynum ; yellowish to orange as in Celandine , or red as 
in Sanguinaria. 

Chlor-zinc-iodine solution imparts to latex a wine red color. 

The latex of the following plants is of value to pharmacy and 
the arts: 

Papaver somnijerum and its variety album which yields Opium. 
That from the unripe capsules is alone used for this drug. 

Palaquium Gutta which yields Gutta Percha. 

Hevea species, Ficus elastica, Landolphia species, Castilloa elastica, 
Hancornia speciosa, Forsteronia species, Funtumia elastica and F. 
africana, Manihot species, Clitandra species and various species of 
Euphorbia furnish most of the Rubber of commerce. 

Lactuca virosa and other species of Lactuca yield the drug Lactu- 
carium. 

26. Enzymes. —An enzyme or ferment (according to Hepburn) 
is a soluble organic compound of biologic origin functioning as a 
thermolabile catalyst in solution. Ostwald has defined a catalyst 
as an agent which alters the rate of a reaction without itself entering 
into the final product, or which does not appear to take any 
immediate part in the reaction, remains unaltered at the end of the 
reaction and can be recovered again from the reaction product 
unaltered in quantity and quality. The biologic catalysts (enzymes) 


VEGETABLE CYTOLOGY 


95 


differ from the inorganic catalysts in that they are sensitive to heat 
and light. According to Haas and Hill they are destroyed at ioo°C. 
and most of them cannot be heated safely above 6o°C. Enzymes 
are soluble in water, glycerin or dilute saline solutions. They are 
stimulated to activity by substances known as “ activators ” and their 
activity is checked by other substances called “ paralyzers.” Fre¬ 
quently the paralyzers consist of products of enzyme action. Cold 
inhibits and warmth accelerates enzyme action. Moisture must 
always be present for enzymic activity. 

\ 

CLASSIFICATION OF ENZYMES 


A. According to Di{fusibility through Cell Wall. 

Endocellular : Those that cannot diffuse out of the cell. Example: 
Zymase of Yeast. 

Extracellular: Those that can diffuse out of the cell. Example: 
Invertase of Yeast. 

B. According to Kind of Substances Acted upon and Transformed. 

i. Carbohydrate enzymes: 

Diatase found in the germinating seeds of barley and 
other grains and in Aspergillus oryzce , etc., converts starch to 
maltose and dextrin. 

Invertase, secreted by yeasts, and found in younger parts 
of higher plants, transforms cane sugar, producing dextrose and 
levulose. 

Maltase, found in malt and Saccharomyces octosporus, transforms 
maltose to dextrose. 

Trehalase, found in Polyporus , hydrolyzes trehalose to dextrose. 
Cytase, found in Nux Vomica seeds, in barley, dates, etc.* decom¬ 
poses hemicellulose and cellulose to galactose and mannose. 

Lactase, found in Kephir grains, hydrolyzes lactose to dextrose 
and galactose. 

Inulase, found in Compositaceous plants, transforms inulin to 


levulose. 

Zymase, found in yeast, hydrolyzes glucose (dextrose and levu¬ 
lose) to alcohol and carbon dioxide. 


96 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


2. Fat and Oil Ferment: 

Lipase splits up fats and oils into fatty acids and glycerin. It is 
found in various mildews, molds and numerous oily seeds and other 
fatty-oil storage regions of higher plants. 

3. Proteinaceous Ferments: 

Pepsin converts proteids into proteoses and peptones. 

Trypsin, found in yeast, Boletus edulis, Amanita species, etc., 
resolves proteins to peptones and amino-acids. 

Bromelin, found in the fruit of the Pineapple and Papayin (Pa¬ 
pain), found in the latex of the fruit of the Papaw, act similarly to 
trypsin. 

Nepenthin, found in the pitchers of Nepenthes species, acts simi¬ 
larly to pepsin. 

4. Glucoside Ferments: 

Emulsin (synaptase), found in the seeds of the Bitter Almond, 
Cherry Laurel leaves, in the barks of the Wild Black Cherry and 
Choke Cherry and in other Rosaceous plant parts, in Manihot 
utilissima, Polygala species, etc., hydrolyzes the glucoside present 
(either amygdalin or 1-mandelonitrile glucoside) to hydrocyanic 
acid, benzaldehyde and glucose. 

Myrosin (myronase), found in the seeds of Brassica nigra and 
other members of the Cruciferce, converts the glucoside, Sinigrin, 
into ally-iso-sulphocyanide and glucose. 

Rhamnase, found in Rhamnus Frangula and probably other species 
of Rhamnus , hydrolyzes the glucoside frangulin to rhamnose and 
emodin. 

Gaultherase, found in Gaultheria procumhens and other Erica- 
ceous plants, resolves the glucoside, gaultherin, to methyl-salicylate 
and glucose. 

CELL WALLS 

The cell walls of plants make up the plant skeleton. They are all 
formed by the living contents of the cells (protoplasts) during cell- 
divisions. In most plants the cell wall when first formed consists of 
cellulose , (CgHioOg)^ a carbohydrate, or closely allied substances. 
It may remain of such composition or become modified to meet cer- 


VEGETABLE CYTOLOGY 


97 


tain functions required of it. Thus, in the case of outer covering 
cells as epidermis and cork, whose function is that of protecting the 
underlying plant units, the walls become infiltrated with cutinand 
suberin, waxy-like substances, which make them impermeable to 
water and gases, as well as protect them against easy crushing. 
Again, in the case of stone cells and sclerenchyma fibers whose 
function is that of giving strength and support to the regions wherein 
found, the walls become infiltrated with lignin which increases their 
strength, hardness, and in the case of sclerenchyma fibers, their 
elasticity also. Moreover, in the case of the cells comprising the 
testa or outer seed coat of the pumpkin, squash, mustard and flax, 
etc., whose function is that of imbibing quantities of water, the walls 
undergo a mucilaginous modification. 

Growth in Area and Thickness. —The cell wall when first formed 
is limited in both extent and thickness. As the protoplast within 
enlarges new particles are placed within the wall by the process called 
intussusception. This increases its area. New particles, also, are 
deposited on its surface which gradually increases its thickness. 
The latter process is known as growth by apposition. 


7 


98 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Various Kinds of Cell Walls and Behavior of Each to Micro- 


Chemic Reagents 


Nature of wall 

- r 

Where found 

' 

Reagent and behavior toward same 

Cellulose. 

1 

) 

Parenchyme cells, tri- 
chomes such as 

cotton, etc. 

Cuoxam dissolves it. Chlorzinc- 
iodine solution imparts a blue or vio¬ 
let color. Iodine solution followed 
by sulphuric acid colors it blue. 

Lignocellulose 
(Lignified wall). 

Wo o d y parts of 
plants, such as stem 
cells, bast fibers, 
wood fibers, etc. 

Phloroglucin with HC 1 imparts a red 
color except to bast fibers of flax. 
Corallin-soda solution imparts pink 
color. Aniline sulphate with H2SO4 
colors it a golden-yellow. Chlorzinc- 
iodine imparts a yellow color. 

Reserve cellulose 

Found in certain seeds 
such as nux vomica, 
ignatia, ivory nut, date, 
coffee, etc. 

As for cellulose. 

Mucilaginous 
modification of 
cellulose. 

In various parts of 
plants. 

Alcoholic or glycerin solution of meth¬ 
ylene-blue imparts a blue color. 

\ 

Suberized walls.. 

In cork, wounded 
areas of plants, endo- 
dermis. 

Alcoholic extract of chlorophyll, in the 
dark, imparts a green color. Alcannin 
and Sudan III impart a red colora¬ 
tion. Converted into yellowish drop¬ 
lets and granular masses upon heat¬ 
ing with a strong solution of KOH. 
Sulpd^ric acid is resisted. 

Cutinized walls.. 

Forming outer walls 
of many epidermal 
cells. 

As for suberized walls. 

Callus of sieve 
plates. 

Silicified walls . . 

Plates of sieve tubes. 

Epidermis of Equi- 
setacese, Graminese, 
etc.; Diatoms. 

Corallin-soda solution imparts pink 
color. 

Soluble in hydrofluoric acid. 













CHAPTER VI 


PLANT TISSUES 

A tissue is an aggregation of cells of common source, structure 
and function in intimate union. 

THE TISSUES OF SPERMATOPHYTES AND PTERIDOPHYTES 

The tissues of seed plants and pteridophytes are all derived from 
a fertilized egg (oospore) which has undergone repeated divisions. 
At first either an apical cell arises or a mass of cells is formed which 
are essentially alike, but gradually we find that a division of labor has 
become operative setting aside many different groups of cells, each 
group of which has its particular role to perform in the economy of 
the whole. Each group of cells similar in source, structure and 
function is called a tissue. The tissues found in higher plants range 
from those whose component cells are more or less rounded, in a 
rapid state of division, and whose thin cellulose cell walls enclose 
a mass of protoplasm, devoid of vacuoles, or with exceeding small 
ones to those whose cells through various physical and chemical 
factors become compressed, elongated, and highly modified in respect 
to their contents and walls. 

As was shown by Hanstein, 1 the embryo of Angiosperms, while 
still constituted of only a few cells in the process of division, becomes 
differentiated into three layers of cells which differ in their arrange¬ 
ment and direction of division; these were called by him, Derma- 
togen , Periblem and Plerome. In roots a fourth layer of cells is 
sometimes evident at the apex. This was termed by Janczewski 2 the 
Calyptrogen layer. These primary layers or groups of cells are 
called primary meristems or generative tissues. They are composed 

1 Hanstein, “Die Scheitelzellgruppe im Vegetationspunkt der Phanerogamen,” 
Bonn, 1868. 

2 Am. Sci. Nat. 5 serie, tom. xx. 


99 


TOO 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


of more or less rounded cells having delicate Cell walls of cellulose 
which enclose protoplasm and nucleus and wherever found in living 
embryos are in a rapid state of division. 

The generative tissues are found in the growing apices of plant 
organs, such as root, stem and leaf apex. By the division and redivi¬ 
sions of their cells they give rise to the mature or adult tissues of 
plants. 

1. Dermatogen originates epidermal tissue and derivative struc¬ 
tures such as stomata, non-glandular and glandular hairs, glands, 
and cork cambium. 

2. Periblem originates cortex tissue, chlorophylloid cells (chlor- 
enchyma) colloid cells (collenchyma), strengthening cells (scleren- 
chyma), crystal cells (raphiderchyma) latex cells (lacterchyma), 
endodermis and cork cambium. 

3. Plerome originates fibro-vascular bundles, fundamental tissue, 
pericambium and cambium. 

According to structure the following tissues are found in various 
forms of higher plants: 


1. Menstem 

2. Parenchyma 

3. Collenchyma 

4. Sclerenchyma 

5. Epidermis 

6. Endodermis 


7. Cork 

8 . Laticiferous tissue 

9. Cribiform or sieve tissue 

10. Tracheary tissue 

11. Medullary rays 


MERISI EM 

Meristem, frequently called embryonic tissue, is undifferentiated 
tissue composed of cells in the state of rapid division. It is found 
in the growing apices of roots, stems and leaves and is in these 
regions called primary meristem , since it is the first meristem to 
appear. Such meristem gives rise to the permanent or mature 
tissues of plants and retains the power of independent growth and 
capacity for division as long as the plant part survives which con¬ 
tains it. Meristem is also found in other regions of plant organs 
such as the cambium, cork cambium and pericambium and is there 
called secondary meristem. Secondary meristem loses with its de¬ 
velopment the power of division and independent growth. 


PLANT TISSUES 


IOI 


PARENCHYMA 

Parenchyma or Fundamental Tissue is the soft tissue of plants, 
consisting of cells about equal in length, breadth and thickness 
(isodiametric) with thin cellulose cell walls enclosing protoplasm and 
a nucleus and frequently substances of a non-protoplasmic nature. 
There are four generally recognized types of parenchyma, viz.: 

Ordinary Parenchyma (Soft Ground Tissue, Fundamental Tis¬ 
sue). —Next to the meristem this is the least modified of all plant 
tissues. It is generally composed of thin-walled cells, commonly 
polyhedral or spheroidal in form and often of approxinately the 
same length, breadth, and thickness (isodiametric), the cell walls are 
composed of cellulose which is usually unmodified. Occasionally 
the outline of the cells is star-shaped, as in the Wood Rush or Pick¬ 
erel Weed or the cells may be several times as long as wide, as in 
Pelargonium, etc. Moreover, markings may occur on the walls. 
These may be of the nature of pores, as in the parenchyma cells of 
the pith of the Elder or Sassafras, annular or reticulate thickenings, 
as in the Mistletoe, or spiral thickenings, as in certain Orchids. 
Protoplasm and a nucleus are always present, but in old cells are 
only seen as a thin layer pushed up against the cell wall. Ordinary 
Parenchyma may be seen composing the soft tissues of roots, stems, 
and barks. 

Assimilation Parenchyma (Chlorophyll or Chromophyll Paren¬ 
chyma, Chlorenchyma)* —This form of parenchyma tissue is found 
in foliage leaves, floral leaves, in the outer region of young green 
stems and fruits. Its cells are thin walled and vary in shape from 
more or less isodiametric to irregular and elongated forms. The 
cells always contain chloroplasts or plastids, in whose pores may be 
found some other coloring substance. 

Conducting Parenchyma. —This type of parenchyma functions 
in the rapid translocation of food materials to distant regions in the 
plant. It includes the wood parenchyma cells of the xylem which 
convey a portion of the crude sap (water with mineral salts in 
solution) and the phloem parenchyma (soft bast) which transports 
the elaborated sap (carbohydrate and proteid material in solution). 
Conducting parenchyma cells differ from those of ordinary paren- 


102 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 



Fig. 40. —Transverse section of part of leaf-stalk of a begonia, e, Epidermis; 
c, cuticle; B, collenchyma, with walls thickened at the angles v, chi, chloroplasts. 
(Sayre after Vines.) 



Fig. 41. —Stone cells from different sources. 1. From coffee; 2, 3, and 4, 
from stem of clove; 5 and 6, from tea leaf; 7, 8, and 9, from powdered star-anise 
seed. ( Stevens, after Moeller). 

















PLANT TISSUES 


103 


chyma in being usually more elongated and in conducting soluble 
food materials with greater celerity. 

Reserve Parenchyma. —This resembles ordinary parenchyma in 
many particulars of structure but differs from it mainly by its cells 
being filled with^ starch, protein crystals, or oil globules. It is 
usually found in seeds, fleshy roots, or underground stems such as 
tubers, corms, and bulbs. 

Collenchyma.—' This form of tissue is characterized by its cells 
being prismatic, more elongated than ordinary parenchyma, and 
thickened in their angles with a colloidal substance. The cells, like 
those of parenchyma tissue contain protoplasm and a nucleus, and 
frequently chloroplasts (Fig. 40). Collenchyma is generally found 
underneath the epidermis, and gives strength to that tissue. It is 
frequently observed forming the “ribs” of stems and fruits of the 
Umbelliferce and “ribs” of stems of the Labiates. In many leaves 
it has been found as the supporting and strengthening tissue between 
the stronger veins and the epidermis. 

Sclerenchyma or stony tissue comprises a variety of supporting 
elements having thickened cell walls composed of lignocellulose. 
When first formed these cells resemble those of ordinary parenchyma 
in having walls of pure cellulose, but later lignin becomes deposited 
on the inner surface of the walls in one or more layers. (Occasion¬ 
ally as in the rhizomes of Ginger no lignin is deposited on the walls 
of the sclerenchyma fibers). When sclerenchyma is composed of 
cells which are more or less isodiametric or moderately elongated, 
with thickened lignified walls and conspicuous pores, its elements 
are called Stone Cells. Stone cells are distributed in fruits, seeds 
and barks of many plants, rarely in woods. They have been found 
forming the gritty particles in the “flesh” of certain fruits as the 
Pear, the endocarp or stone region of drupaceous fruits as the Olive, 
Peach, Cubeb, Pepper, etc., the hard portions of seed coats as in 
Physostigma, Walnuts, etc. Each stone cell presents for examina¬ 
tion a cell wall of cellulose with one or several layers of lignin on its 
inner surface which surround a central lumen. The latter is in 
communication with radial pore canals leading outward to the 
middle lamella. Longitudinal pore canals are also evident. 

When sclerenchyma is composed of cells which are greatly elon- 


104 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 



Fig. 42.—Stone cells from various sources. 1, From olive pit; 2, from cocoa- 
nut endocarp; 3, from flesh of pear; 4, from aconite root; 5, from capsicum; 6. 
from hazelnut; 7, from allspice. (Drawing by Hoff stein.) 






































PLANT TISSUES 


105 


gated and more or less obtusely or taper ended, its component ele¬ 
ments are termed Scierenchyma fibers. These fibers are frequently 
spindle-shaped, contain air and exhibit oblique slits in their walls. 
They are either polygonal, rectangular or somewhat rounded in 



Pig. 43. —Scierenchyma fibers from different sources. 1, From powdered 
cinnamon bark; 2, End of bast fiber of flax stem showing transverse markings 
(6); 3, middle portion of flax fiber showing characteristic cross markings at b; 4, 
bast fiber from cinchona bark; 5, branched bast fiber from choke cherry bark; 
6, above, end, and below, median portion of bast fiber of jute. All highly mag¬ 
nified. 


transverse section. They occur in various parts of roots, stems, 
leaves, fruits and seeds as supporting elements. When scierenchyma 
fibers occur in the xylem region of fibro-vascular bundles they are 
termed Wood Fibers; when they appear in the ph'osm region, 
Bast Fibers. 




































io6 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


EPIDERMIS 

Epidermis is the outer covering tissue of a plant and is protective 
in function. Its cells may be brick-shaped, polygonal, equilateral or 
wavy in outline. Their outer walls are frequently cutinized (infil¬ 
trated with a waxy-like substance called cutin). Among the epider¬ 
mal cells of leaves and young green stems may be found numerous 
pores or stomata (sing, stoma) surrounded by pairs of crescent- 



Fig. 44.—Upper epidermis of Comptonia aspleni/olia leaf (surface view) show¬ 
ing epidermal cells and two non-glandular trichomes. 

shaped cells, called guard cells. The stomata are in direct commun¬ 
ication with air chambers beneath them which in turn are in 
communication with intercellular spaces of the tissue beneath. The 
function of the stomata is to give off watery vapor and take in or 
give off carbon dioxide, water and oxygen. In addition to stomata 
some leaves possess groups of water stomata which differ from trans¬ 
piration stomata in that they always remain open, are circular in out¬ 
line, give off water in droplets directly, and lie over a quantity of 
small-celled glandular material which is in connection with one or 
more fibro-vascular bundles. Examples: Leaves of Crassnla, Saxi- 
fraga and Ficus. 




PLANT TISSUES 


107 



Fig. 45.—Trichomes from different sources. 1, Unicellular non-glandular 
trichomes as seen growing out of epidermal cells of Senna; 2, uniseriate non- 
glandular trichomes of Digitalis; 3, unicellular stellate trichomes from Deutzia 
scabra; 4, unicellular twisted trichomes from lower epidermis of Eriodictyon; 5, 
clavate non-glandular trichomes from scraping of epidermis of the fruits of 
Rhus glabra; 6, 2-branched trichomes of Hyoscyamus muticus, a substitute for 
Henbane; 7, branched multicellular trichome of Marrubium; 8 , glandular tri¬ 
chomes from strobile of Humulus (Lupulin); 9, glandular trichomes from leaves 
of Digitalis purpurea ; 10, aggregate, non-glandular trichomes of Kamala; 11, 
lateral view (to left) and vertical view (to right) of glandular trichomes of 
Kamala; 12, vertical view (above) and profile view (below) of 8-celled glandular 
hair from Mentha piperita. All highly magnified. 






















io8 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


The epidermis of leaves, stems, fruits, and seeds of many plants 
frequently give rise to outgrowths in the form of papillae, hairs 
and scales. Epidermal papillce ^re short protuberances of epidermal 
cells. They may be seen to advantage on the upper epidermis of the 



Pig. 47. 


Fig. 46. 


Pig. 46.—1, Epidermis of oak leaf; 2, epidermis of Iris leaf, both viewed from 
the surface-; 3, group of cells from petal of Viola tricolor; 4, two epidermal cells 
in cross-section showing thickened outer wall differentiated into three layers, 
namely, an outer cuticle, cutinized layer (shaded), and an inner cellulose layer; 
5 and 6, epidermal outgrowths in the form of scales and hairs. (1, 2, 6 after 
Stevens, 3 after Slrasburger, 4 after Sachs, and 5 after de Bary .) 

Pig. 47.—Different forms of epidermal outgrowths. 1, Hooked hair from 
Phaseokis multiflorus; 2, climbing hair from stem of Humulus Lupulus; 3, rod- 
like wax coating from the stem of Saccharum officinarum; 4, climbing hair of 
Loasa hispida; 5, stinging hair of Urtica urens. {Fig. 3 after de Bary; the re¬ 
mainder from Haberlandt.) 

ligulate corolla of various species of Chrysanthemum , on the lower 
epidermis of the foliage leaves of species of Erythroxylon and upon the 
upper epidermis of the petals of the Pansy (Viola tricolor). Epi¬ 


dermal hairs or trichomes are more elongated outgrowths of one 
or more epidermal cells. They may be unicellular (Cotton) or 

























PLANT TISSUES 


IO9 


multicellular, non-glandular (simple) or glandular. The non- 
glandular hairs may be of various shapes, viz.: clavate (club-shaped) 
as on Rhus glabra fruits ; stellate (or star-shaped) as on Deutzia 
leaves; candelabra-shaped, as on Mullein leaves; filiform as on 
Hyoscyamus, Belladonna and Digitalis leaves; hooked, as on stems 
of Phaseolus multiflorus or Hops; barbed, as on the stems of Loasa 
species; or tufted, as found on the leaves of Marrubium vulgare. 
They may be simple as in Cotton, etc., or branched as in Hyoscyamus 
muticus. 

The glandular hairs comprise those whose terminal cell or cells are 
modified into a more or less globular gland for gummy, resinous or 
oily deposits. They are generally composed of a stalk and a head 
region although rarely the stalk may be absent. The stalk may be 
unicellular, bicellular or uniseriate (consisting of a series of super¬ 
imposed cells). The head varies from a one- to many-celled struc¬ 
ture. The drug Lupidin consists of the glandular hairs separated 
from the strobiles of Humulus lupulus. 

Scales are flat outgrowths of the epidermis composed of one or 
several layers of cells. They occur attached to the stipes 4 of Aspid- 
ium, Osmunda and other ferns, where they are called “chaff scales.” 
They are also found on a number of higher plants. 

Plant hairs are adapted to many different purposes. They may 
absorb nourishment in the form of moisture and mineral matter 
in solution, e.g., root hairs. Those which serve as a protection to the 
plant may be barbed and silicified, rendering them unfit for animal 
food, or, as in the nettle, charged with an irritating fluid, penetrating 
the skin when touched, injecting the poison into the wound. A 
dense covering of hairs also prevents the ravages of insects and the 
clogging of the stomata by an accumulation of dust. They fill an 
important office in the dispersion of seeds and fruits, as with their 
aid such seeds as those of the milkweed and Apocynum are readily 
scattered by the wind. 

The reproductive organs of many Cryptogams are modified 
hairs, as the sporangia of Ferns. 

ENDODERMIS 

Endodermis is the “starch sheath” layer of cells, constituting 
the innermost layer of the cortex. In Angiospermous stems it 


no 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


usually resembles the other parenchyma layers of cortex as to struc¬ 
tural characteristics, save that it frequently contains more starch. 
In fern stems, roots of Monocotyledons and of Dicotyledons of 
primary growth, however, its cells are clearly distinguished from the 
other cells of the primary cortex by their elongated form and sub- 
erized (occasionally lignified) radial walls. In the roots of Mexican 
Sarsaparilla the inner as well as the radial walls are suberized; in 
those of the Honduras variety, inner, radial and outer walls all show 
suberization. Endodermal tissue is devoid of intercellular-air-spaces. 
Its cells contain protoplasm and nucleus. Its functions seem to be 
to give protection to the stele (tissues within it) and to reduce per¬ 
meability between primary cortex and stele. 

CORK 

Cork or suberous tissue is composed of cells of tabular shape, 
whose walls possess suberized layers. Its cells are mostly filled 
with air containing a yellow or brownish substance. It is derived 
from the phellogen or cork cambium which cuts off cork cells out¬ 
wardly. Cork tissue is devoid of intercellular-air-spaces. It 
forms a protective covering to the roots of secondary growth, stems 
(after the first season) of Dicotyledons and Gymnosperms, and 
wounds of stems and branches. Living cork cells contain protoplasm 
and cell sap while dead cork cells are filled with air. 

The walls of cork cells resist the action of concentrated sulphuric 
acid. They are colored green, when in contact with alcoholic 
extract of chlorophyll for several days in the dark. 

LATICIFEROUS TISSUE 

This form of tissue comprises either latex cells , laticiferous vessels, 
or secretory cells differing from each other in origin and method of 
development. Latex cells are elongated tubes which take their 
origin from meristematic cells of the embryo. Elongating with the 
growth of the plant, they branch in various directions and traverse 
at maturity all of its organs. Such cells are abundant in the 
following families: Apcoynacece, Asclepiadacece, Urticacece and 
Euphorbiacece. 


PLANT TISSUES 


III 


Laticiferous vessels are long simple or branching tubes, which owe 
their origin to chains of superimposed cells whose transverse walls 



Pig. 48—Laticiferous vessels from'the^cortex of root of Scorozonora hispanica, 
A, As seen under low power, and B, a smaller portion under high power. ( Stevens 
after Sachs.) 


have early become absorbed, the lumina of the cells then becoming 
filled with latex. They are found in various parts of roots, stems, 
and leaves. When branched the branches connect with those of 



112 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


other tubes forming anastomosing network. These vessels occur 
in the following families: Composites, Papaveraceae, Campanulacea, 
Convolvulaceae, Euphorbiacece, Araceae, Oleaceae, Geraniaceae, and 
Musacece. 

Secretory cells with a latex-like content are probably of secondary 
oiigin in plants. They resemble in many respects latex cells and are 
seen in various species of the Celastracece , Urticaceae, Tiliaceae , and 
Oleacece families. 

All laticiferous elements contain a colorless, milky-white, or 
otherwise colored emulsion of gum-resins, fat, wax, coautchouc and 
in some cases, alkaloids, tannins, salts, ferments, etc. This emulsion 
is called “latex.” 

SIEVE (LEPTOME OR CRIBIFORM) TISSUE 

This tissue found in the phloem (rarely in the xylem) region of 
fibro-vascular bundles consists of superimposed, elongated, tubular 
cells whose longitudinal walls are thin and composed of cellulose and 
whose transverse walls, called “sieve plates,” are perforated, per¬ 
mitting of the passage of proteids from one cell to another. Occa¬ 
sionally sieve plates are formed on the longitudinal walls. Sieve 
tubes are usually accompanied By companion cells excepting in 
Pteridophytes and Gymnosperms. Both companion cells and sieve 
tubes arise by the division of the same mother-cell. The companion 
cells may be distinguished from the sieve tubes by their abundant 
protoplasmic contents, and also by the fact that they retain their 
nuclei after complete maturation. Besides sieve tubes, companion 
cells, and bast fibers, parenchyma cells are often found in the 
phloem. 

TRACHEARY TISSUE 

The tracheary tissue of plants comprises two kinds of elements, the 
tracheae (ducts or vessels) and tracheids. Both of these conduct 
crude sap (water with mineral salts in solution). The tracheae are 
very long tubes of a cylindrical or prismatic shape which are formed 
by the disintegration of the transverse walls between certain groups 
of superimposed cells, during the growth of the plant. The tubes 
frequently retain some of their transverse walls. The longitudinal 


PLANT TISSUES 


lr 3 

walls of these tubes are of varying thickness, usually, however, 
thinner than those of woody fibers. The thickness is due to an infil- 



Fig. 49. 



Fig. 50. 


Fig. 49. —Stages in the development of sieve tubes, companion cells, and 
phloem parenchyma. A, a and b, Two rows of plerome cells; in c and d, a has 
divided longitudinally and c is to become companion cells; d, a sieve tube, and 
b, phloem parenchyma. B, c, Companion cells, and d, a beginning sieve tube 
from c and d, respectively in A. The cross-walls in d are pitted; b, phloem paren¬ 
chyma grown larger than in A. C, The same as B with the pits in the cross- 
walls of the sieve tubes become perforations, and the nuclei gone from the cells 
composing the tube. {From Stevens.) 


Fig. 50. —Vascular elements. A, annular tracheal tube; B, spiral trachea 
tube; C, reticulated tracheal tube; D, pitted tracheal tube; E, cross-section 
through plate of seive tube, and adjoining companion cell; F, length-wise section 
of sieve tube; G, portions of two companion cells. (A, B, C, D, Robbins; E, F, 
and G, after Strasburger.) 


tration of lignin upon the original cellulose wall. The walls show 
characteristic thickenings on their inner surfaces. 

8 
























































Pig. 51. —Stages in the development of the elements of the xylem. A, pro¬ 
gressive steps in the development of a tracheal tube. 1, Row of plerome or 
cambial cells that are to take part in the formation of a tube; 2, the same at a 
later stage enlarged in all dimensions; 3, the cells in 2 have grown larger, their 
cross-walls have been dissolved out, and the wall has become thickened and 
pitted; 4, the walls in 3 have become more thickened, the pits have an overhang¬ 
ing border, the walls have become lignified as indicated by the stippling, and 
finally the protoplasts have disappeared, and the tube is mature and dead. B, 
Stages in the formation of tracheids from pferome or cambial cells. The steps 















































































































PLANT TISSUES 


115 

Tracheae are classified according to their markings as follows: 
Annular, with ring-like thickenings. 

Spiral , with spiral thickenings. 

Reticulate , with reticulate thickenings. 



Pig. 52. —Closed collateral bundle of stem of Zea mays. VG, Bundle sheath; 
L, intercellular space; A, ring from an annular tracheal tube; SP, spiral tracheal 
tube; M, pitted vessels; V, sieve tubes; S, companion cells; CP, crushed primary 
sieve tubes; F, thin-walled parenchyma of the ground or fundamental tissue. 
(From Sayre after Strasburger .) 


Porous or pitted with spherical or oblique slit pores. 
Annulo-spiral, with both ring and spiral thickenings. 

Scalariform, with ladder-like thickenings. 

are the same as in A, excepting that the cross-walls remain and become pitted. 
C, steps in the development of wood fibers from cambial cells. 1, Cambial cells; 
2, the same growth larger in all dimensions with cells shoving past each other 
as they elongate; 3, a later stage with cells longer and more pointed and walls 
becoming thickened and pitted; 4, complete wood fibers with walls more thick¬ 
ened than in the previous stage and lignified, as shown by the stippling. The 
protoplasts in this last stage have disappeared and the fibers are dead. D, steps 
in the formation of wood parenchyma from cambial or procambial cells, i. 
Group of cambial or plerome cells; 2, the same enlarged in all dimensions; 3, the 
same with walls thickened and pitted; 4 and 5 show the same stages as 2 and 3, 
but here the cells have enlarged radially or tangentially more than they have 
vertically. The walls of these cells are apt to become lignified, but the cells are 
longer lived than the wood fibers*. (From Stevens.) 









PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Il6 

Tracheids are undeveloped ducts having bordered pores and fre¬ 
quently scalariform thickenings. Like tracheae their walls give the 
characteristic lignin reaction with phloroglucin and HC 1 . The 
bordered pores of coniferous tracheids (Fig. 77) exhibit a wall 
surrounding the pore which forms a dome shaped protrusion into 
the cell. Like tracheae, also, tracheids convey water with mineral 
salts in solution. Tracheids and medullary rays make up most of 
the wood of Conifers. 



Fig. 53.—Transverse section of a concentric bundle from the rhizome of Iris 
(a monocotyledon). Xylem surrounding the phloem, t. Tracheae; t l , proto- 
xylem; s, sieve tubes; g, companion cells of the internal, phloem portion. {From 
Sayre after Vines.) 


MEDULLARY RAYS 

These are bands of parenchyma cells which extend radially from 
the cortex to the pith (primary medullary rays) or from a part of the 
xylem to a part of the phloem (secondary medullary rays). In 
tangential-longitudinal sections they usually appear spindle shaped 
while in radial-longitudinal sections they are seen crossing the other 
elements. Their primary function is to supply the cambium and 
wood with elaborated sap formed in the leaves and conveyed away 
by the sieve tubes, and phloem parenchyma and to supply the cam- 



PLANT TISSUES 


117 

bium and phloem with crude sap which passes up mainly through the 
tracheae and tracheids from the absorptive regions of the roots. 
They furthermore serve as storage places for starch, alkaloids, resins, 
and other substances. 

Fibro-vascular Bundles are groups of fibers, vessels and cells cours¬ 
ing through the various organs of a plant and serving for conduction 



Fig. 54.—Diagrams illustrating the arrangement of the regions in different 
types of fibrovascular bundles. In each diagram x represents xylem; P, phloem 
and C, cambium. A, Radial bundle; B, concentric bundle of fern stem type; 
C, concentric bundle of monocotyl type; D, closed collateral bundle; E, open 
collateral bundle; F, bi-collateral bundle. 


and support. According to the relative structural arrangement of 
their xylem and phloem masses they may be classed as follows: 

I. Closed collateral , consisting of a mass of xylem lying alongside 
of a mass of phloem, the xylem facing toward the center, the phloem 
facing toward the exterior. Stems of most Monocotyledons and 
Horsetails. 

■ II. Open collateral , consisting of a mass of xylem facing toward 
the pith and a mass of phloem facing toward the exterior and sepa¬ 
rated from each other by a cambium. Stems and leaves of Dicoty¬ 
ledons and roots of Dicotyls and Gymnosperms of secondary growth. 

III. Bicollateral, characterized by a xylem mass being between 
an inner and an outer phloem mass. There are two layers of cam¬ 
bium cells, one between the xylem and inner phloem mass, the other 









n8 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


between the xylem and outer phloem mass. Seen chiefly in stems 
and leaves of the Cucurbitacece and Solanacece. 

IV. Concentric, characterized by a central xylem mass surrounded 
by a phloem mass or vice versa. No cambium present. 

(a) Concentric, with xylem central in bundle. Seen in stems and 
leaves of nearly all ferns and the Lycopodiaceoe. 



Fig. 55. —Cross-section through a portion of a root of Acorus calamus. A. 
Cortical parenchyma; B, endodermis; C, pericycle; E, phloem; F, xylem. At 
Y, Y, are large tracheal tubes, which were formed last, the narrow tubes near 
the periphery of the xylem being formed first. At the center of the root, within 
the circle of the radial vascular bundle, occur thin-walled parenchymatous pith 
cells. (From Sayre after Frank.) 


(b) Concentric, with phloem central in bundle. Seen in stems and 
leaves of some Monocotyledons. Examples: Calamus and Conval- 
laria rhizomes. 

V. Radial, characterized by a number of xylem and phloem masses 
alternating with one another. Seen in the roots of all Spermato- 
phytes and Pteridophytes. 





PLANT TISSUES 


119 

Xylem is that part of a fibro-vascular bundle that contains wood 
cells and fibers. It may also contain tracheae, tracheids, seldom 
sieve tubes. 

Phloem is that part of a fibro-vascular bundle that contains sieve 
tubes, phloem cells, and often bast fibers. . 

SECRETION SACS (SECRETION CELLS) 

These were formerly parenchyma cells which sooner or later lost 
their protoplasm and nucleus and became receptacles for oil, resin, 
oleoresin, mucilage or some other secretory substance. They are 
generally found in parenchyma regions of stems, roots, leaves, 
flower or fruit parts and frequently possess suberized walls. Good 
illustrations of these structures may be seen in Ginger and Calamus. 

INTERCELLULAR AIR SPACES 

Intercellular air spaces are cavities filled with air found between 
cells or groups of cells throughout the bodies of higher plants. Their 
function is to permit of the rapid movement of atmospheric gases 
through the entire plant body. They are formed either by the 
breaking down of the middle lamella of the cell walls, where several 
cells come together, and a later separation of the cells at these 
places (. Schizogenous intercellular-air-spaces) , or by a breaking down 
and disappearance of cell walls common to groups of cells ( lysigenous 
intercellular-air-spaces) . In terrestrial plants which live in middle 
regions ( mesophytes ) and in desert plants ( xerophytes ) the intercellu¬ 
lar-air-spaces are averagely small and more or less angular. In 
plants of swamp or marsh habit they are medium-sized, while in 
those which live entirely in the water (hydrophytes) they are of large 
size and more or less rounded. 

SECRETION RESERVOIRS 

These structures are either found as globular or irregular spaces, 
as in Orange and Lemon Peel and Eucalyptus leaves, containing oil 
or oil and resin when they are called internal glands, or, as tube-like 
spaces filled with hydrocarbon principles such as are found in Pine 
leaves an,d stems, when they sometimes receive the name of secretion 


120 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


canals. Occasionally they are named according to the nature of 
their contents—resin or oil canal or reservoir, etc. They are gen¬ 
erally lined with a layer of cells, usually more or less flattened, which 
are characterized by possessing large nuclei. To this layer has been 
assigned the name “epithelium.” 



Fig. 56.—Resin duct (secretion reservoir) in leaf of Pinus silvestris, in cross 
section at A, and in longitudinal section at B; h, cavity surrounded by the secret¬ 
ing cells; /, /, selerenchyma fibers surrounding and protecting the duct. ( Stevens , 
after Haberlandt. 


Classification of Tissues According to Function. —According to 
their particular function, tissues may be classified as follows: 


I. Conducting Tissues 


II. Protective Tissues 


III. Mechanical Tissues 


Parenchyma (fundamental tissue) 
Medullary rays 

Xylem cells (wood parenchyma) 
Tracheae (ducts) 

Phloem cells 
Sieve tubes 
Companion cells 

f Epidermis (outer cell walls cutinized) 
| Cork (suberized tissue) 

Bast fibers 
Wood fibers 
Selerenchyma fibers 
Stone cells 
Collenchyma 

















CHAPTER VII 


c 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 

An organ is a part of an organism made up of several tissues and 
capable of performing some special work. 

An organism is a living entity composed of different organs or 
parts with functions which are separate, but mutually dependent, 
and essential to the life of the individual. \j 

The organs of flowering plants are either Vegetative or Reproduc¬ 
tive. The vegetative organs of higher plants, are roots, stems, and 
leaves. They are concerned in the absorption and elaboration of 
food materials either for tissue-building or storage. 

The reproductive organs of higher plants include those structures 
whose function it is to continue the species, viz.: the flower, fruit and 
seed. 

The ripened seed is the product of reproductive processes, and the 
starting point in the life of all Spermatophytes. The living part of 
the seed is the embryo, which, when developed, consists of four parts, 
the caulicle, or rudimentary stem, the lower end of which is the be¬ 
ginning of the root, or radicle. At the upper extremity of the stem 
are one, two, or several thickened bodies, closely resembling leaves, 
known as cotyledons, and between these a small bud or plumule. 

The function of the cotyledon is to build up nourishment for the 
rudimentary plantlet until it develops true leaves of its own. r 

THE ROOT 

The root is that part of the plant that grows into or toward the 
soil, that never develops leaves, rather rarley produces buds, and 
whose growing apex is covered by a cap. 

The functions of a root are absorption, storage and support. Its 
principal function is the absorption of nutriment and to this end it 
generally has branches of rootlets covered with root-hairs which 
largely increase the absorbing surface. These root-hairs are of 


12 I 


122 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


minute and simple structure, being merely elongations of the 
epidermis of the root back of the root cap into slender tubes with 
thin walls. 



Fig. 57.—Cross-section of rootlet in the region of the root-hairs. ( From Stevens.) 

The tip of each rootlet is protected by a sheath- or scale-like cover¬ 
ing known as the root cap, which not only protects the delicate grow¬ 
ing point, but serves as a mechanical aid in pushing its way through 



Fig. 58.—Root-hairs, with soil-particles adhering. (Gager, after Sachs.) 

the soil. The generative tissues in the region of the root cap are: 
plerome, producing fibro-vascular tissue; periblem, producing cortex; 
dermatogen, producing epidermis; and calyptrogen, producing the 
root cap. 




PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


123 


Differences Between Root and Stem 


The Root 

1. Descending axis of plant. 

2. Growing point sub-apical. 

3. Contains no chlorophyll. 

4. Branches arranged irregularly. 

5. Does not bear leaves or leaf rudi¬ 
ments. 

6. Structure comparatively simple. 


The Stem 

1. Ascending axis of plant. 

2. Growing point apical. 

3. Chlorophyll sometimes present. 

4. Branches with mathematical regu¬ 
larity. 

5. Bears leaves and modifications. 

6. Structure better defined. 


Classification of Roots as to Form.—1. Primary or first root , a 
direct downward growth from the seed, which, if greatly in excess of 
the lateral roots, is called the main or tap root. Examples: Taraxa¬ 
cum, Radish. 

2. Secondary roots are produced by the later growths of the stem, 
such as are covered with soil and supplied with moisture. Both 
primary and secondary roots may be either fibrous or fleshy. 

The grasses are good examples of plants haying fibrous roots. 
Fleshy roots may be multiple, as those of the Dahlia, or may assume 
simple forms, as follows: 

Fusiform , or spindle-shaped , like that of the radish or parsnip. 

Napiform , or turnip-shaped , somewhat globular and becoming 
abruptly slender then terminating in a conical tap root, as the roots 
of the turnip. 

Conical , having the largest diameter at the base then tapering, as 
in the Maple. 

3. Anomalous roots are of irregular or unusual habits, subserving 
other purposes than the normal. 

4. Adventitious roots are such as occur in abnormal places on the 
plant. Examples: Roots developing on Bryophyllum and Begonia 
leaves when placed in moist sand. 

5. Epiphytic roots , the roots of epiphytes, common to tropical 
forests, for example, never reach the soil at all, but cling to the bark 
of trees and absorb nutriment from the air. Example: Roots of 
Vanilla. 

6. The roots of parasitic plants are known as Haustoria. These 
penetrate the bark of plants upon which they find lodgement, known 


124 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


as hosts, and absorb nutritious juices from them. The Mistletoe , 
Dodder and Geradia are typical parasites. 

Duration of Root. -Plants are classified according to the duration 
of the root, as follows: 

1. Annual plants are herbs with roots containing no nourishment 
for future use. They complete their growth, producing flower, 
fruit and seed in a single season, then die. 

2. Biennial plants develop but one set of aerial organs the first 
year, e.g., the leaves, and, as in the beet and turnip, etc., a large 
amount of reserve food material is stored in the root for the support 
of the plant the'following season when it flowers, fruits and dies. 

3. Perennial plants live indefinitely, as trees. 

Root Histology.—Monocotyledons.—The histology of mono- 
cotyledonous roots varies, depending upon relations to their sur¬ 
roundings, which may be aquatic, semi-aquatic, mesophytic, or 
xerophytic. In this connection we will discuss only the type of 
greatest pharmacognic importance, i.e., the mesophytic type as 
seen in its most typical form in the transverse section of Honduras 
Sarsaparilla root. 

Examining such a section from periphery toward the center, one 
notes the following: 

1. Epidermis of a single layer of cells many of which give rise to 
root-hairs. 

2. Hypodermis of two or three layers of cells whose walls are 
extremely thickened. 

3. Cortex, consisting of a broad zone of parenchyma cells many 
of which contain starch grains. 

4. Endodermis of one layer of endodermal cells whose walls are 
extremely thickened through the infiltration of suberin and lignin. 

5. Pericambium of one or two layers of meristematic cells whose 
walls are extremely thin. 

6. A radial Jibro-vascular bundle of many alternating xylem and 
phloem patches and hence polyarch. The phloem tissue consists 
of phloem cells and sieve tubes. The xylem is composed of xylem 
cells, tracheae and wood fibers. 

7. Medulla or pith composed of parenchyma cells containing starch 
and often showing xylem patches cut off and enclosed within it. 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


125 


Dicotyledons. —The typical dicotyl root is a tetrarch one, four 
xylem alternating with four phloem patches. These roots have an 
unlimited power of growth. 


ha 



p m t en 


Fig. 59.—Part of a transverse section of Honduras sarsaparilla root showing 
epidermis (e), root hair (ha), hypodermis ( h ), cortex ( c), rendodemis (en), peri- 
cambium (p), trachea of One of the numerous xylem patches (t), and pith (m). 
The phloem patches are the small oval cellular areas wedged in between the outer 
portions of adjacent xylem masses. (Photomicrograph.) 


A. Of Primary Growth. 

A transverse section of a dicotyl root in its young growth shows 
the following structure from periphery toward center: 

1. Epidermis with cutinized outer walls, the cells often elongating 
to form root-hairs. 



126 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


2. Hypodermis. 

3. Primary cortex with usually small intercellular spaces. 

4. Endodermis, or innermost layer of cells of the cortex with 
lenticularly thickened radial walls. 

5. Pericambium of one to two layers 
of actively growing cells which may 
produce side rootlets. 

6. Radial fibro-vascular bundle of 
four, rarely two or three or five or six 
phloem patches alternating with as 
many xylem arms. Not uncommon to 
find bast or phloem fiber along outer 
face of each phloem patch. Xylem 
has spiral tracheae, internal to these a 
few pitted vessels, then, as root ages, 
more pitted vessels, also xylem cells 
and wood fibers make their appearance. 

7. Pith, a small zone of parenchyma 
cells. 

B. Of Secondary Growth (Most official 
roots). 

At about six weeks one notes cells 
dividing by tangential walls in the inner 
curve of phloem patches. This is in- 
trafascicular cambium. A single layer 
of flattened cells starts to cut off on 
its inner side a quantity of secondary 
xylem and pushes out the patches of 
bast fibers, adds a little secondary 
phloem on the outer side. Secondary 
xylem finally fills up the patches between 
the arms. The patches of bast fibers get flattened out. The 
pericambium has a tendency to start division into an inner and 
outer layer. The outer layer becomes a cork cambium (phellogen) 
surrounding the bundle inside of the endodermis. It cuts off cork 
tissue on its outer face, hence all liquid material is prevented from 
filtering through and cortex including endodermis, as well as the 



Pig. 60.—Cross-section of a 
young root of Phaseolus muJti- 
florus. A, pr, cortex; m, pith; 
x, stele or central cylinder—all 
tissue within the pericycle, in¬ 
clusive; g, primary xylem bun¬ 
dles; b, primary phloem bun¬ 
dles. B, cross-section of older 
portion of root; lettered as in A ; 
b', secondary phloem, k, cork. 
(Stevens, after Vines.) 



PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


127 


epidermis, shrivel and dry up and separate off at the age of two 
to three months. The cork cambium (phellogen) may lay down 
secondary cortex internal to itself and external to the phloem. 

Patches of cells of the inner layer of pericambium divide rapidly 
and are called interfascicular cambium. These join the intrafasci- 
cular cambium to form a continuous cambium ring which then 
cuts off additional secondary xylem on its inner face and secondary 
phloem on its outer face pushing inward the first-formed or proto- 
xylem and outward the first-formed or protophloem. The medullary 
rays become deepened. 

Thus, in a transverse section made through a portion of a Dicotyl 
root showing secondary growth, the following regions are noted pass¬ 
ing from periphery to center: 


<v 

3 


1. Cork 

2. Cork cambium (phellogen) 

3. Secondary cortex 

4. Protophloem 

5. Secondary phloem 

6. Cambium 

7. Secondary xylem 

8. Protoxylem 


Strands of cells extending radially from the cortex to the center 
of the section separating each open fibro-vascular bundle from its 
neighbors. These are called medullary rays. 

Histology and Development of a Dicotyl Root (California Privet) 
—A. Make a permanent mount of a T. S. of»the root of the California 
Privet (.Ligustrum Californicum) cut just above the root cap, and 
note the following structures, passing from periphery toward the 
center (see Fig. 61): 

1. Epidermis, composed of a layer of epidermal cells whose 
outer walls have been infiltrated with a substance called Cutin. 

2. Hypodermis, a layer of somewhat thick walled cells just be¬ 
neath the epidermis. 

3. Cortex, composed of cortical parenchyme cells with small 
angular intercellular air spaces. 




128 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


4. Endodermis, or innermost layer of cells of the cortex, whose 
radial walls are lenticularly thickened. 

5. Pericambium, of a layer of actively growing meristematic 
cells, which has the power of producing lateral rootlets. 

6. Radial fibro-vascular bundle of five xylem arms alternating 
with as many phloem patches. Note the narrow spiral tracheae in 
the xylem patches. 



en 


Fig. 61. —Photomicrograph of a transverse section of a California Privet root 
of primary growth showing epidermis ( e ); hypodermis ( h ); cortex (c); endodermis 
{en)\ pericambium ( p)\ a xylem arm of the radial bundle (/) and pith (m). 


The section you have just studied illustrated in general the appear¬ 
ance of any Dicotyl root of^ primary growth. 

B. Mount permanently another T. S. cut through the same root a 
short distance above the first. 

Note that this is somewhat larger in diameter. Observe the root 
hairs starting from the epidermis; a broad cortex; a large clear and 
open looking endodermis; then pericambium; next, a central patch 
of xylem showing a faint pentarch relation. Pushed out are five 






PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


129 


phloem tracts. Each of these constitutes a mass of protophloem 
(first formed phloem). On the inner face of each phloem mass may 
be seen intrafascicular cambium. At the outer end of each xylem 
tract there has been cut off a patch of fine cambial cells (interfascic¬ 
ular cambium) which becomes joined to the intrafascicular cambium 



Fig. 62. —Photomicrograph of a transverse section of a California Privet root 
made about 1 }>£ inches above the root tip and showing transition structure. The 
epidermis ( e ), primary cortex (pc) and endodermis are in the process of stuffing 
off, since cork ( ck) has been laid down by the cork cambium ( ph ) directly beneath 
the endodermis. The cork cambium has also formed several layers of secondary 
cortex (sc) on its inner face. The protophloem represented largely by hard 
bast (hb) has been pushed out, while a small amount of secondary phloem repre¬ 
sented by soft bast (sb) has been deposited beneath it by the cambium (c) which 
now is nearly circular in aspect. The protoxylem (px) has been pushed into the 
center by the encroaching secondary xylem (x) which has been laid down by 
the cambium on its inner face. Highly magnified. 


to develop secondary phloem on the outer face and secondary xylem 
on the inner face. 

C. Mount permanently a third T. S. out through the same root a 
short distance above the second. Note that this is still larger in 
diameter than the second. The pericambium has already divided 


9 










130 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


into an inner and an outer layer. The outer layer has become the 
cork cambium, cutting off cork on its outer face beneath the endo- 
dermis. Cork being an impermeable barrier to water has prevented 
the nourishing sap from percolating through to the endodermis, cor¬ 
tex and epidermis. These regions have consequently begun to sluff 
off. Note that the cambium has begun to spread out into the form 



Fig. 63.—Transverse section of California Privet root made about an inch and 
a half above the section shown in Fig. 61 and showing secondary structure. 
Note that epidermis, primary cortex and endodermis have completely disappeared. 
Cork ( ck)\ phellogen ( ph ); secondary cortex (sc); protophloem (p')] secondary 
phloem ( p 2 ); cambium (c); secondary xylem ( x 2 ) and protoxylem ( x'). 
(Photomicrograph). 

of a ring. More secondary xylem has been formed on its inner face 
and additional secondary phloem has appeared on its outer face. 
(Fig. 62.) , 

D. Make a permanent mount of a fourth T. S. cut through the 
same root some distance above the third. Note that the epidermis, 
primary cortex and endodermis have completely peeled off. Cork 
is found as the external bounding layer and underneath it, cork 





PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 131 

cambium. This cork cambium has developed secondary cortex on 
its inner face. The cambium has assumed a circular aspect. Just 
beneath the secondary cortex will be found flattened patches of 
protophloem, and beneath these secondary phloem masses have 


Pig. 64.—Photomicrograph of a transverse section of an old portion of 
California Privet root, showing completed secondary development. Note the 
prominent medullary rays (mr); cork ( ck)\ phellogen (ph); secondary cortex 
(between ph and p'); protophloem ( p '); secondary phloem ( p 2 ); cambium (c); 
secondary xylem (* 2 ); tracheae (<); wood fibers ( wf ); and piotoxylem ( x '). 

$ 

been formed through the activity of the cambium. The cambium 
has developed new or secondary xylem on its inner face which has 
pushed the first formed or protoxylem toward the center of the root. 
(Fig. 63.) 





132 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Abnormal Structure of Dicotyl Roots. —In certain Dictoyl roots 
as Amaranthus , Jalap, Pareira, and Phytolacca, after the normal 
bundle system has been formed, there then develop successive cam¬ 
biums outside of these bundles, producing concentric series of open 
collateral bundles. 

Histology of a Dicotyl Tuberous Root (Aconitum). —A transverse 
section made through the tuberous root of Aconitum Napellus near 
its middle shows a cork region of one or more layers of blackish or 
brownish cells; a broad cortex of two regions, viz.: an outer narrower 
and an inner broader zone. The narrower zone consists of from 
eight to fifteen layers of cortical parenchyma cells, interspersed among 
which are numerous irregular-shaped stone cells. Separating this 
zone from the broader one is an endodermis of a single layer of tan- 
genitally elongated endodermal cells. The broader zone consists of 
about twenty layers of parenchyme cells. Next, a five- to seven¬ 
angled cambium, within the angles of which and frequently scattered 
along the entire cambial line, occur collateral fibro-vascular bundles. 
In the center is found a broad five- to seven-rayed pith composed of 
parenchyma cells. The parenchyma cells of the cortical regions and 
pith contain single or two- to five-compound starch grains. 

Root Tubercles 

The roots of plants of the Leguminosce , Myricaceoe as well as some 
species of Aristolochiacece and of the genera Alnus and Ceanothus are 
characterized by the appearance upon them of nodule-like swellings 
called root tubercles. In the case of the Leguminosce the causative 
factor is a species of bacteria named Pseudomonas radicicola. This 
is a motile rod-shaped organism which appears widely distributed 
in soils. It is apparently attracted to the root-hairs of leguminous 
plants by a chemotactic influence probably due to the secretions 
poured out by these structures. A number of these organisms pene¬ 
trate the walls of the root-hairs by enzymic action. Upon entering 
the hairs they form bacterial tubes which branch and rebranch, and 
extend into the middle cortex cells carrying the bacteria with them. 
Within the cortex cells the organisms multiply rapidly producing 
nest-like aggregations. Their presence here causes the formation of 
nodules or tubercles. Under oil-immersion magnification these 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


I 33 


bacteria are found to exhibit variously shaped involution forms called 
bacterioids. They remain within the cells of the medio-cortex region 
gradually swelling up into zoogicea masses, until finally their bodies 
break down into soluble nitrogenous substances which are partly 
absorbed and assimilated and partly stored as reserve nitrogenous 
food for the green leguminous plant. 



Fig. 65.—Root system of a legume showing tubercles. {Marshall.) 


In the modern rotation of crops, plant growers plough under the 
leguminous crops or their nodule-producing roots which decay and 
enrich the soil with ample nitrogenous material to supply the next 
season’s crop of nitrogen-consuming plants. 

The writer has found tubercles on Myrica cerifera , Myrica Car - 
oliniensis and Myrica Macfarlanei seedling primary roots of 5 to 6 
months’ growth, and from thence onward on the secondary roots 
inserted on the hypocotyl axis, on nearly all the adventitious roots of 
subterranean branches and on the subterranean branches of Myrica 




134 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 






Fig. 66. — Ps. radicicola. i, From Melilotus alba; 2 and 3, from Medicago sativa; 
4, from Vicia villosa. ( Marshall, after Harrison and Barlow from Lipman.) 



Fig. 67.—Tubercular clusters on underground stem and roots of Myrica Mac- 
farlanei observed by the author at North Wildwood, N. J., Jan. 31, 1915. 





PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS' 


135 


cerifera , M. Caroliniensis, M. Gale , M. Macfarlanei, and Comptonia 
asplenifolia. The inciting organism has been isolated by him in 
pure culture according to Koch’s postulates and named Actinomyces 
Myricarum Youngken. 

The tubercles occur either singly, as is frequently the case on 
subterranean branches, in small groups the size of a pea, or in larger 
coralloid loose or compact clusters which frequently attain the size 
of a black walnut. Each tubercle is a short cylindrical blunt-ended 
root-like structure which branches di- or trichotomously after attain¬ 
ing a certain length. The branches frequently rebranch at their tips 
which grow out into long thread-like structures from 1-3 cm. in 
length that may also branch and become entwined about the roots of 
other plants. The color of the youngest tubercles is a pinkish-gray 
brown. As the tubercles become older their color changes to brown, 
dark-brown and even black. (For a detailed description of the 
Myrica and Comptonia tubercles and their inciting organism, con¬ 
sult, “The Comparative Morphology, Taxonomy and Distribution 
of the Myricaceae of the Eastern United States” by Youngken, in 
Contributions from the Botanical Laboratory of the University of 
Pennsylvania, vol. iv, no. 2, 1919.) 

THE BUD 

% 

Buds are short young shoots with or without rudimentary leaves 
(bud scales) compactly arranged upon them. 

The plumule represents the first bud on the initial stem or caulicle. 

Scaly buds are such as have their outer leaf rudiments transformed 
into scales; there are often coated with a waxy or resinous substance 
without and a downy lining within, to protect them from sudden 
changes in climate. Buds of this character are common among 
shrubs and trees of temperate regions. 

Naked buds are those which are devoid of protective scales. 
They are common to herbaceous plants. 

Classification of Buds According to Development .—1. A leaf bud 
is a young shortened shoot bearing a number of small leaves. It is 
capable of elongating into a branch which bears leaves. 

2. A flower bud is a rudimentary shoot bearing one or more 
concealed and unexpanded young flowers. 


136 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


3. A mixed bud is a young shoot bearing concealed unexpanded 
leaves and flowers. 

Classification of Buds According to Position on the Stem. —1. A 
terminal bud is.one which is located on the end of a stem (shoot). 
It is capable of elongating into a shoot which bears leaves or both 
leaves and flowers. 

2. An axillary or lateral bud is one which arises in the leaf axil. 
It is capable of giving rise to a side branch or to a flower. Occa¬ 
sionally axillary buds do not develop and are then called dormant 
buds. 

3. An adventitious bud is one which occurs on some position of the 
stem other than at its apex or in the axil of a leaf. Such buds may 
be seen developing along the veins of a Begonia leaf or along the 
margin of a Bryophyllum leaf after these have been planted in 
moist soil for several days. 

4. An accessory bud is an extra bud which forms in or near the 
leaf axil. 

Classification of Buds According to Their Arrangement on the Stem. 

1. When a single bud is found at each joint or node of a stem, the 
buds are said to be alternate. 

2. When two buds are found at a node they are opposite. 

3. When several buds occur at a node they are whorled. 

THE STEM 

The stem is that part of the plant axis which bears leaves or modi¬ 
fications of leaves and its branches are usually arranged with mathe¬ 
matical regularity. 

Stems usually grow toward the light and so are heliotropic. 

The functions of a stem are to bear leaves or branches, connect 
roots with leaves, and conduct sap. 

When the stem rises above ground and is apparent, the plant is 
said to be caulescent. 

When no stem is visible, but only flower or leaf stalks, the plant is 
said to be acaulescent. 

Stems vary in size from scarcely Ms inch in length, as in certain 
mosses, to'^a remarkable height of 400 feet or more. The giant 
Sequoia of California attains the height of 420 feet. Some of the 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS I37 

Eucalyptus trees of Australia and Tasmania are reported to attain 
the height of 500 feet. 

Nodes and Internodes. —The nodes are the joints of stems. They 
represent the parts of the stem from which leaves or branches arise. 
Internodes are the parts of stems between nodes. 

Direction of Stem Growth. —Generally the growth of the stem is 
erect. Very frequently it may be: 

Ascending, or rising obliquely upward. Example: Saw Palmetto. 

Reclining, or at first erect but afterward bending over and trailing 
upon the ground. Example: Raspberry. 

Procumbent, lying wholly upon the ground. Example: Pipsissewa. 

Decumbent, when the stem trails and the apex curves upward. 
Examples: Vines of the Cucurbitacece. 

Repent, creeping upon the ground and rooting at the nodes, as the 
Strawberry. 

Stem Elongation. —At the tip of the stem there is found a group of 
very actively dividing cells (meristem) which is the growing point of 
the stem. All the tissues of the stem are derived from the cells of 
the growing point whose activity gives rise in time to three genera¬ 
tive regions which are from without, inward: 

1. Dermatogen, forming epidermis; 

2. Periblem, forming the cortex; and 

3. Plerome, iorming the fibro-vascular elements and pith. 

Duration of Stems. 

Annual, the stem of an herb whose life terminates with the season. 
Examples: Corn. 

Biennial, where the stem dies at the end of the second year. 
Example: Burdock. 

Perennial, when the stem lives for many years. Example: Oak. 

Stem Modifications. —(i) twining, by elongation and marked 
circumnutation of young internodes as in Convolvulus, Dodder, 
etc. (2) Tendriliform by thread-like modification and sensitivity 
to contact of a side branch as in Passion flower, Squash, etc. (3) 
Spiny, by checking and hardening of a branch that may then become 
defensive ecologically as in hawthorn, honey locust, etc. (4) 
Aerial tuberous, in which one or more internodes, enlarge above 
ground and store reserve food as in pseudobulbs of orchids, Vitis 



138 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


gongylodes, etc. (5) Subterranean tuberous in which a subter¬ 
ranean stem or branch enlarges as a food-storing center: (a) annual 
type, tuber as in potato, etc., corm as in crocus, etc.; ( b ) perennial 
type, bulbs as in lily (scaly) and onion or hyacinth (tunicated). 

(6) Phylloid or leaf-like in which flattening branch expansion occurs, 
when leaves become reduced in size as in Asparagus , Ruscus, etc. 

(7) Cactoid, in which reduced condensed branches or stems become 
swollen for water (and food) storage as in Cacti, Euphorbia sp., etc. 

Above-ground Stems.—A twining stem winds around a support, 
as the stem of a beam or Morning Glory. 

A culm is a jointed stem of the Grasses and Sedges. 

A climbing or scandent stem grows upward by attaching itself 
to some support by means of aerial rootlets, tendrils or petioles. 
Examples: Ivy, Grape, etc. 

The scape is a stem rising from the ground a*nd bearing flowers 
but no leaves, as the dandelion, violet, or blood root. 

A tendril is a modification of some special organ, as of a leaf 
stipule or branch, capable of coiling spirally and used by a plant in 
climbing. Present in the Grape, Pea, etc. 

A spine or thorn is the indurated termination of a stem tapering 
to a point, as the thorns of the Honey Locust. 

Prickles are outgrowths of the epidermis and cortex and are 
seen in the roses. 

A stolon is a prostrate branch, the end of which, on coming in con¬ 
tact with the soil, takes root, so giving rise to a new plant. Exam¬ 
ples: Currant and Raspberry. 

An herbaceous stem is one which is soft in texture and readily 
broken. Example: Convallaria majalis. 

An undershrub or suffruitoose stem is a stem of small size and 
woody only at the base. Examples: Bitter-sweet, Thyme, etc. 

A shrubby or fruitcose stem is a woody stem larger than the pre¬ 
ceding and freely branching near the ground. Example: Lilac, etc. 

A trunk is the woody main stem of a tree. 

Herb and Tree 

A tree is a perennial woody plant of considerable size, attaining a 
height of 15 or more feet, and having as the above-ground parts a 
trunk and a crown of leafy branches. 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


139 


There are two plans of branching in trees. When the trunk, or 
main stem, extends vertically upward to the tip, as it does in the 
junipers, spruces and other conical trees, the type of branching is 
called excurrent ; when it divides into several more or less equal 
divisions as in the elm and other spreading trees, it is said to be 
deliquescent. The deliquescent plan is the more common one among 
our deciduous trees. 

An herb is a plant whose stem does not become woody and perma¬ 
nent, but dies, at least down to the ground, after flowering. 

Underground Stems.—A rhizome is a creeping underground stem, 
more or less scaly, sending off roots from its lower surface and stems 
from its upper. The rhizome grows horizontally, vertically or ob¬ 
liquely, bearing a terminal bud at its tip. Its upper surface is 
marked with the scars of the bases of aerial stems of previous years. 
Examples: Triticum, Rhubarb, etc. 

The tuber is a short and excessively thickened underground stem, 
borne usually at the end of a slender, creeping branch, and having 
numerous eyes or buds. Example: Tubers of the Potato. 

The corm is an underground stem excessively thickened and solid 
and characterized by the production of buds from the center of the 
upper surface and rootlets from the lower surface. Examples: 
Colchicum, Jack-in-the-Pulpit, etc. 

A bulb is a very short and scaly stem, producing roots from the 
lower face and leaves and flower from the upper. 

Tunicated bulbs are completely covered by broad scales which 
form concentric coatings. Examples: Onion, Squill, Daffodil. 

Scaly bulbs have narrow imbricated scales, the outer ones not en¬ 
closing the inner. Example: Lily. 

Tubers and corms are annual. Bulbs and Rhizomes are perennial. 

Exogenous and Endogenous Stems.— Exogenous stems are typical 
of Gymnosperms and Dicotyledons and can increase materially in 
thickness due to presence of a cambium. Such stems show differen¬ 
tiation into an outer or cortical region and an inner or central cylinder 
region. 

Endogenous stems are typical of most Monocotyledons and cannot 
increase materially in thickness due to absence of cambium. The 
limited increase in diameter that does take place is due to the en- 


140 PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 

largement of the cells of the primary tissues. Such stems show no 
differentiation into cortical and central regions. 

Histology of Annual Dicotyl Stem.—(In both annual and perennial 
dicotyledonous stems endodermis and pericambium are rarely seen 
since each has become so similar to cortex through passage of food, 
etc.) 



Fig. 68 . —Photomicrograph of cross-section of stem of Aristolochia sipho, 
where cambial activity is just beginning, a, Epidermis; b, collenchyma; c, thin- 
walled parenchyma of the cortex, the innermost cell layer of which is the starch 
sheath or endodermis; d, sclerenchyma ring of the pericycle; e, thin-walled paren¬ 
chyma of the pericycle; /, primary medullary ray; g, phloem; h, xylem; i, inter¬ 
fascicular cambium; j, medulla or pith. X 20. (From Stevens.) 


1. Epidermis, cutinized, with hairs. 

2. Cortex composed of three zones: an outer or exocortex, whose 
cells are thin walled and contain chloroplasts; a middle ormedio- 
cortex, consisting of cells of indurated walls giving extreme pliability 
and strength,.an inner or endocortex, a very broad zone of thin- and 
thick-walled parenchyma cells. 

3. The innermost layer of cells of the cortex called endodermis. 
(Not generally distinguishable.) 

4. Pericambium. (Not generally distinguishable.) 



PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


141 


















































































































































]»42 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


5. Fibro-vascular bundles of open collateral type arranged in a 
circle with primary medullary rays between the bundles. 

6 . Pith. 

















































































































































































PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


143 


Growth of Perennial DicotylStem and its Histology. —A perennial 
dicotyl stem in the first year does not differ in structure from an 
annual. By the close of the year a cork cambium (phellogen) has 
originated beside the epidermis. In origin of cork cambium—one 
of two methods: ( a ) either the epidermis may divide into an outer 
layer of cells that remains epidermis and an inner layer of cells that 
becomes cork cambium, or, ( b ) the outermost layer of cortex cells 
underneath the epidermis becomes active after being passive for 
one year, and lays down walls, the inner layer becoming cork cam¬ 
bium, the outer becoming a layer of cork. The cork cuts off water 
and food supplies from epidermis outside and so epidermis separates 
and falls off as a stringy layer. The cork cambium produces cork 
on its outer face and secondary cortex on its inner. 

Between the bundles certain cells of the primary medullary rays 
become very active and form interfascicular cambium which joins 
the cambium of the first-formed bundles (intrafascicular cambium) 
to form a complete cambium ring. By the rapid multiplication of 
these cambial cells new (secondary) xylem is cut off internally and 
new (secondary) phloem externally, pushing inward the first-formed, 
or protoxylem, and outward the first-formed, or protophloem , thus 
increasing the diameter of the stem. The primary medullary rays 
are deepened. Cambium may also give rise to secondary medullary 
rays. 

Sometimes, as in Grape Vines, Honeysuckles, and Asclepias, in¬ 
stead of cork cambium arising from outer cortex cells it may arise 
at any point in cortex. It is the origin of cork cambium at varying 
depths that causes extensive sheets of tissue to separate off. That 
is what gives the stringy appearance to the stems of climbers. 

At close of first year in Perennial Dicotyl Stem we note: 

1. Epidermis—development of dermatogen or periblem—in process of 
peeling off, later on entirely absent. 

2. Cork tissue or periderm. 

3. Cork cambium or phellogen. 

4. Sometimes zone of thin-walled cells containing chloroplasts cut off by 
cork cambium on inner face and known as phelloderm. 

5. Cortex—in perennial stem cells of cortex may undergo modification into 
mucilage cells, into tannin receptacles, crystal cells, spiral cells, etc. 




144 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


a 

Oh 

O 


T3 

a 

O 


Ph 


6. Fibro-vascular bundles of open collateral type which are now arranged 
into a compact circle, and between which are found primary and often 
secondary medullary rays. 

From without inward the following tissues make up f. v. bundles. 
Protophloem / Hard Bast—long tenacious bast fibers. 

Secondary Phloem \ Soft Bast—phloem cells and sieve tubes. 

Cambium—active layer giving rise to secondary phloem on outer and 
secondary xylem or inner face, and adding to depth of med. rays. 
Secondary xylem—wood fibers, pitted vessels, tracheids. 

Protoxylem—spiral tracheae. 

7. Pith. 



Fig. 71.7 —Portion of cross-section of four-year-old stem of Aristolochia sipho, as 
shown by the rings of growth in the wood. The letters are the same as in Fig. 68 
but new tissues have been added by the activity of the cambium; and a cork cam¬ 
bium has arisen from the outermost collenchyma cells and given rise to'cork. Tho 
new tissues are; l, cork cambium; k, cork; g, secondary phloem from the cambium, 
and just outside this is older crushed phloem; n, secondary xylem produced by 
the cambium; m, secondary medullary ray made by the cambium (notice that this 
does not extend to the pith). Half of the pith is shown. Notice how it has been 
crushed almost out of existence. Compare Figs. 68 and 71, tissue for tissue, to 
find out what changes the primary tissues undergo with age, and to what extent 
new tissues are added. Photomicrograph X 20. (From Stevens .) 



PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


145 


EXCEPTIONAL TYPES OF DICOTYL STEMS 

In a number of Dicotyledons and Gymnosperms, the secondary 
growth in thickness of the stem and frequently of the root differs from 
that which is found in the vast majority of species and so is called 
exceptional or anomalous. 

In Phytolacca , etc., there first arises a ring of primary bundles with 
broad loose medullary rays. Then the stem cambium ceases its 



Fig. 72. —White birch (Betula populifolia ). Portion of a branch showing the 
prominent lenticels. (Gager.) 

activity, and, outside the bast of the bundles already formed in the 
pericambium or tissue developing from it, a new cambium starts 
to lay down another ring of bundles in rather irregular fashion. 
Then after developing a wavy ring of bundles and connecting tissue 
that cambium closes up. Still another cambium ring arises without 
this, and in a single season quite a number of these are found succes¬ 
sively arranged in concentric fashion. 

In Gelsemium, species of Solanacece, Combretacece, Cucurbitacece, 
etc., there arises a cambium on the inner face of the xylem which 


10 






146 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


forms internal phloem (or intraxylary phloem ), thus giving rise to 
bicollateral bundles. 

In Strychnos Nux Vomica internal phloem exactly as in Gelse- 
mium , etc., appears but in addition interxylary phloem is developed. 
In the wood region of this plant axis the cambium starts at a certain 
age to lay down patches of phloem which become wedged in between 
xylem tissue as interxylary phloem. 

Lenticels and Their Formation. —The epidermis in a great ma¬ 
jority of cases produces stomata, apertures, surrounded by a pair of 
guard cells, which function as passages for gases and watery vapor 
from and to the active cells of the cortex beneath. 



PH, phellogen; L, loosely disposed cells of the lenticel; PL, cambium of the 
lenticel; PS, phelloderm; C, cortical parenchyma containing chlorophyll. (From 
Sayre after Strasburger.) 

There very early originate in the region beneath the stomata 
loosely arranged cells from cork cambium which swell up during 
rain and rupture, forming convex fissures in the cork layer, called 
lenticels. 

The function of lenticels is similar to that of stomata, namely, 
to permit of aeration of delicate cells of the cortex beneath. 

Annual Thickening. —In all woody exogenous stems such as 
trees and shrubs the persistent cambium gives rise to secondary 
xylem thickening every spring, summer and autumn. Soon a great 
cylinder of xylem arises which constitutes the wood of the trunk and 
branches. In the spring, growth is more active, and large ducts 
with little woody fiber are produced while in summer and autumn 




PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


147 


growth is lessened and small ducts and much mechanical woody 
fiber are formed. Thus the open, loosely arranged product of the 
spring growth abuts on the densely arranged product of the last 
summer and autumn growth and the sharp contrast marks the 
periods of growth. To the spring, summer and autumn regions of 
growth of each year is given the term of “annual ring .” By count¬ 
ing the number of these rings it is possible to estimate the age of 
the tree or branch. 



Fig. 74.—Part of a transverse section of a twig of the linden, four years old. 
m, Pith; ms, medullary sheath; x, secondary wood; Ph, phloem; 2, 3, 4, annual 
rings; c, cambium; pa, dilated outer ends of medullary rays; b, bast; pr, primary 
cortex; k, cork. (From Sayre after Vines.) 

Bark. —Bark or bork is a term applied to all that portion of a 
woody exogenous plant axis outside of the cambium line. 

In pharmacognic work, bark is divided into three zones, these 
from without inward being: 

1. Outer Bark or Cork. 

2. Middle Bark or Cortical Parenchyma. 

3. Inner Bark or Phloem. 

Periderm. —Periderm is a name applied to all the tissue produced 
externally by the cork cambium (P hello gen). This term appears 
01 ten in pharmacognic and materia medica texts. 

Phelloderm. —Phelloderm or secondary cortex is all that tissue 
produced by the cork cambium on its inner face. Its cells frequently 
contain chloroplasts. 



148 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


M 



Fig. 75.—'Part of a cross-section through branch of Cytisus laburnum. (The 
branch was cut from the tree at the end of October.) From A to £ the last 
annual ring of wood; from A to B the spring growth with large tracheal tubes 
( T, T, T ); between B and C and D and D are wood-fibers; between C and D and 
D and E, wood parenchyma; from E to F, cambium; F to G, phloem portion; G to 
H, cortical parenchyma; M, medullary ray. Below A the last wood-fibers and 
wood parenchyma formed the previous year. (From Sayre after Haberlandt.) 
























PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


149 


Histology of a Typical Bark, Cascara Sagrada— In transverse 
section passing from outer to inner surface, the following structural 
characteristics are evident: 

1. Cork, or outer bark, composed of several layers of rectangular 
cork cells. The most external layers are dead and appear black 
because they are filled with air. The inner layers of this region 
are living and contain brownish contents. 

2. Cork cambium (phellogen), a layer of delicate cells with pro¬ 
toplasmic contents in the process of division. 

3. Cortex, or middle bark, consisting of two regions, viz.: an outer 
zone of two or three rows of brownish collenchyma cells, and an 
inner broader zone of tangentially elongated cortical parenchyma 
cells. Imbedded within this zone will be noted numerous groups 
oi stone cells. 

4. Phloem, or inner bark, a very broad zone composed of irregular¬ 
shaped, elongated phloem masses separated from each other by 
medullary rays which converge in the outer phloem region. Each 
phloem mass consists of numerous sieve tubes and phloem cells, some 
of which latter contain spheriodal starch grains while others contain 
monoclinic prisms or rosette aggregates of calcium oxalate. Em¬ 
bedded within the phloem masses in tier-like fashion will be noted 
groups of bast fibers, each group of which is surrounded by a row 
of crystal fibers, individual cells of which can only be made out in 
this kind of a section. Each of these contains a monoclinic prism of 
calcium oxalate. The medullary rays possess brownish contents 
which take a red color with an alkaline solution. 

In radial longitudinal section a lengthwise view of the tissues will 
be seen. The medullary rays appear 15 to 25 cells in height and 
crossing at right angles to the other elements. 'The crystal fibers 
here will be seen to be composed of vertical rows of superimposed 
thin-walled cells each of which contains a monoclinic prism of 
calcium oxalate. The bast fibers appear elongated and taper ended 
and are associated with crystal fibers. 

In a tangential longitudinal section which has been cut through 
the phloem, the exact range in width of the medullary rays may be 
ascertained. In this bark the medullary rays are spindle-shaped 
in tangential view and one to four cells in width. 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


150 

Wood. —From a pharmacognic standpoint as well as that of the 
lumber trade, wood is all that portion of woody exogenous plant 
axis inside of the cambium line. In Dicotyl and Gymnosperm 
stems it therefore includes the xylem regions of the bundles, the 


st 



Fig. 76.—Photomicrograph of transverse section of Cascara Sagrada bark; 
k, cork; g, cork cambium; c, cortex; st, group of stone cells; bf, group of bast fibers; 
mr, medullary ray. 

xylem portions of the medullary rays and the pith, while in the roots 
of secondary growth of these plants it comprises the xylem portions 
of the bundles and the xylem medullary rays. 

As the cambium year after year adds new layers of wood to that 
already present on its inner face, the coveying of sap and storing 



PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


151 

qf starch, etc. is gradually relegated to the outer wood layers, since 
the inner layers, step by step, lose their protoplasmic contents and 



Fig. 77. —Diagrammatic representation of a block of pine wood highly mag¬ 
nified. a, Early growth; b, late growth; c, intercellular space; d, bordered pit in 
tangential wall of late growth; m, f and e, bordered pit in radial wall of early 
growth from different points ot view; h, row ot medullary cells for carrying food; 
g, row of medullary ray cells for carrying water; k, thin place in radial wall of ray 
cells that carry food (.From Stevens.) 

power of conducting sap and become filled with extractive, resinous 
and coloring matters. The outer whitish layers of wood which con- 




































































































































152 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


tain living cells, functioning in the vegetative processes of the planj, 
constitute the alburnum or sap-wood. The drug Quassia is a good 
example of this kind of wood. The inner dead colored layers con¬ 
stitute the duramen or heart-wood. Important examples of this 
kind of wood used in pharmacy are Lignum Guaiaci, Haematoxylum, 
and Santalum Album. 

Microscopic Characteristics of Angiospermous and Gymnosperm- 
ous Woods.— The wood of Angiosperms is characterized by the pres¬ 
ence of tracheae (vessels) with various markings on their walls, 

particularly by small pits in the walls 
of some of the tracheae, together with 
wood fibers, wood parenchyma and 
medullary rays. 

The wood of Gymnosperms is made 
up for the larger part of tracheids with 
bordered pits which latter are charac¬ 
terized in radial longitudinal section by 
the presence of two rings, one within 
the other. A single row of these is 
seen on the tracheid wall. Medullary 
rays, frequently diagnostic for different 
species and woody parenchyme cells, 
are also found. 

Histology of Typical Herbaceous 
Monocotyl Stems (Endogenous). —Passing from exterior toward 
center the following structures are seen: 

1. Epidermis whose cells are cutinized in their outer walls. 

2. Hypodermis, generally collenchymatic. 

3. Cortex. 

4. Endodermis or innermost layer of cortex. 

5. A large central zone of parenchyma matrix in which are found 
scattered fibro-vascular bundles of the closed collateral or rarely 
concentric type (amphivasal). In this latter type, which is typical 
of old monocotyl stems, the xylem grows completely around phloem 
so that phloem is found in the center and xylem without and sur¬ 
rounding it. 



Fig. 78. —Photomicrograph 
of cross-section of very young 
cornstalk, where certain pler- 
ome strands have just gone 
over into vascular bundles. 
For comparison with Fig. 79. 
(Stevens.) 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


153 


Histology of a Typical Woody Monocotyl Stem. —The stem of the 
Greenbrier, a woody monocotyl, will here be considered. In trans¬ 
verse section passing from periphery toward the center the following 
structural details will be noted: 

1. Epidermis , of a single layer of epidermal cells whose outer walls 
are strongly cutinized. Cutin is a wax-like substance which forms 
a protective coat to the epidermis, preventing the evaporation of 
water, the ingress of destructive parasites, and injury from insects. 



Fig. 79.—Crbss-section of cornstalk stem; a, epidermis; b, cortex and 
c, ground tissue. (After Stevens.) 

2. A cortex , composed of about ten or twelve layers of thick-walled 
parenchyma cells, the outer two or three layers of which are termed 
hypodermis. 

3. An endodermis , wavy in character and composed of endodermal 
cells whose brownish walls are strongly suberized. 

4. A sclerenchymatous cylinder sheath composed of somewhat 
separated masses of sclerenchymatous fibers and undeveloped fibro- 
vascular bundles of the closed collateral type. 

5. A central matrix of strongly thickened parenchyma cells in 
which are scattered, irregularly, numerous closed collateral bundles. 
Small starch grains will be found in the parenchyma cells. Examine 
a representative bundle, and note the two very large tracheae and 


i54 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


several smaller ones in the xylem portion of the bundle which faces 
toward the center of the section. In the outer or phloem portion 
of the bundle will be seen an area of soft, small-celled sieve tubes and 
phloem parenchyme. The entire bundle is enclosed by_a several 



Fig. 8o. —Photomicrograph of a representative portion of Greenbrier stem 
showing epidermis ( e.p .), cortex (c), endodermis ( e.n.d .), cylinder sheath ( c.s .), 
sclerenchyma fibers of closed collateral bundle (&), fundamental parenchyma 
(/.£.), trachea (/). X 22. 


layered ring of sclerenchyma fibers, .which on the inner face are 
called wood fibers, on the outer, bast fibers. The wood fibers con¬ 
stitute the supporting elements of the xylem, while the bast fibers 
are the supporting elements of the phloem. 





PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


155 


THE LEAF 

The leaf is a usually flattened, rarely semi-centric, or centric-lateral 
expanse developed by the stem or by branches and in whose axil one 
or more branches arise. * 

Leaves seldom develop buds over their surface or along their 
margin and in connection therewith roots. The capacity for bud 
development is restricted to three families, viz.: Crassulacece, Be - 
goniacece and Gesneracece. 

Leaf Functions .—The most essential function of plants is the con¬ 
version of inorganic into organic matter; this takes place ordinarily 
in the green parts, containing chlorophyll, and in these when exposed 
to sunlight. Foliage is an adaptation for increasing the extent of 
green surface. 

The functions of a leaf are photosynthesis, assimilation, respiration 
and transpiration. 

Photosynthesis is the process possessed by all green leaves or other 
green parts of plants of building up sugar, starch or other complex 
organic substances by means of chlorophyll and sunlight. This 
process takes place in nature, only during sunlight. C 0 2 is taken 
in and O given off. 

Assimilation is the process of converting food material into proto¬ 
plasm. 

Respiration or breathing is the gaseous interchange whereby all 
living organisms take in oxygen and give off carbon dioxide. 

Transpiration is the giving off of watery vapor. 

Types of Leaves Developed in Angiosperms. —These may be 
tabulated as follows: 

1. Cotyledons (the primitive or seed leaves). 

2. Scale leaves. 

3. Foliage leaves. 

4. Bract leaves: (a) primary at base of inflorescence: ( b) bracteo- 
lar leaves at a base of individual flowers. 

5. Sepals. 

6. Petals. 

7. Microsporophylls (stamens). 

8. Megasporophylls (carpels). 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


156 

Cotyledons. —Cotyledons are the first leaves to appear upon the 
ascending axis and are single in Monocotyledons, double in Dicoty¬ 
ledons. Occasionally, as in certain Maples, there may be three 
cotyledons shown. This is due to a splitting of one of the cotyledons. 
There exist no true cases of polycotyledony (development of many 
cotyledons) among Angiosperms, as in Gymnosperms. In Mono¬ 
cotyledons the single cotyledon is a terminal structure and truly 
axial in relation to the hypocotyl and radicle. From a primitively 
Monocotyl-like ancestry Dicotyledons develop a second cotyledon 
on the Epicotyledonary node. Later, by a suppression of the second 
node the second cotyledon is brought to the level of the first. 

Scale Leaves. —Scale leaves are reduced foliage leaves. They are 
found on certain rhizomes, above ground stems, such as Dodder, 
etc., on bulbs, and forming the protective scales of scaly buds. 

Foliage Leaves. —These are the common green leaves so familiar 
to all. 

Bract leaves are modified leaves appearing on inflorescence axes. 

Sepals, petals, microsporophylls and megasporophylls are floral 
leaves and will be treated at length under the subject of the flower. 

Origin and Development of Leaves. —Leaves arise around the 
growing apex region of a stem or branch as lateral outgrowths, each 
consisting at first of a mass of cells called the primordial leaf. 
Through continued cell-division and differentiation of these cells in 
time the mature leaf is developed. The primordial leaf is formed 
by a portion of the dermatogen of the growing stem apex, which 
becomes epidermis, a portion of the periblem, producing mesophyll 
which grows into this, and a part of the plerome, which becomes 
vascular tissue within the mesophyll. 

In the sub-divisions of cells around the growing stem-apex, the 
primordial leaves (primordia) do not arise exactly at the same time. 
There is a tendency toward spiral arrangement. 

Phyllotaxy. —Phyllotaxy is the study of leaf arrangement upon 
the stem or branch, and this may be either alternate, opposite, 
whorled, or verticillate, or fascicled. It is a general law in the 
arrangement of leaves and of all other plant appendages that they 
are spirally disposed, or on a line which winds around the axis like 
the thread of a screw. The spiral line is formed by the union of 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 1 57 

two motions, the circular and the longitudinal, and its most common 
modification is the circle. 

In the alternate arrangement there is but one leaf produced at 
each node. Examples: Aconite, Magnolias. 

Opposite , when a pair of leaves is developed at each node, on 
opposite sides of the stem. Examples: Mints, Lilac. 

Decussate, when the leaves are arranged in pairs successively along 
the stem, at right angles to each other. Example: Thorough wort. 

Whorled or Verticillate, when three or more form a circle about 
the stem. Examples: Canada Lily and Culver’s root. 

Fascicled or Tufted , when a cluster of leaves is borne from a single 
node, as in the Larch and Pine. 

The spiral arrangement is said to be two-ranked, when the third 
leaf is over the first, as in all Grasses; three-ranked, when the fourth 
is over the first. Example: Sedges. The five-ranked arrangement 
is the most common, and in this the sixth leaf is directly oyer the 
first, two turns being made around the stem to reach it. Example: 
Cherry, Apple, Peach, Oak and Willow, etc. As the distance be¬ 
tween any two leaves is two-fifths of the circumference of the stem, 
the five-ranked arrangement is expressed by the fraction %. In 
the eight-ranked arrangement the ninth leaf stands over the first, 
and three turns are required 
to reach it, hence the fraction 
% expresses it. Of the series 
of fractions thus obtained, the 
numerator represents the num¬ 
ber of turns to complete a 
cycle, or to reach the leaf conw)ute pllcaU c^duphcate 

which is directly over the first; Pig 8l _ Three principal types of 
the denominator, the number vernation. (Robbins.) 

of perpendicular rows on the 

stem, or the number of leaves, counting along the spiral, from any 
one to the one directly above it. 

Vernation.— Prefoliation or Vernation relates to the way in which 
leaves are disposed in the bud. A study of the individual leaf 
enables us to distinguish the following forms. When the apex is bent 
inward toward the base, as in the leaf of the Tulip Tree, it is said to be 




PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


158 

inflexed or reclinate vernation; if doubled on the midrib so that 
the two halves are brought together as in the Oak or Peach, it is 
conduplicate; when rolled inward from one margin to the other, as 
in the Wild Cherry, it is convolute; when rolled from apex to base, 
as in Ferns, it is circinate; when folded or plaited, like a fan as in 
Ricinus, Maples, Aralias, etc., it is plicate; if rolled inward from each 
margin toward the midrib on the upper side, as the leaves of the 
Apple or Violet, involute; when rolled outward from each margin as 



Pig. 82 .—Stereogram of leaf structure. Part of a veinlet is shown on the right. 
Intercellular spaces are shaded. (From Stevens.) 


Dock or Willow leaves, revolute. The inner surface is always that 
which will form the upper surface when expanded. 

The Complete Leaf. —The leaf when complete consists of three 
parts, lamina , petiole , and stipules. The lamina or blade is the ex¬ 
pansion of the stem into a more or less delicate framework, made up 
of the branching vessels of the petiole. 

The petiole is the leaf stalk. The stipules are leaf-like appendages 
appearing at the base of the petiole. 


















PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


159 


The leaf of the Tulip Poplar or Liriodendron affords a good exam¬ 
ple of a Complete Leaf. 

Sometimes the lamina or blade is attached directly to the stem 
by its base and is then said to be sessile. If the petiole is present, 
petiolate. 

When leaf stipules are absent, the leaf is said to be exstipulate, 
when present, stipulate. 

The petiole is seldom cylindrical in form, but usually channelled 
on the upper side, flattened, or compressed. The stipules are always 
in pairs and closely resemble the leaf in structure. 

The blade ot the leaf consists of the framework, made up of branch¬ 
ing vessels of the petiole, which are woody tubes pervading the soft 
tissue called mesophyll, or leaf parenchyma, and serve not only as 
supports but as veins to conduct nutritive fluids. Veins are absent 
in simple leaves such as many of the Mosses. 

Leaf Venation.— Furcate or Forked Venation is characteristic of 
many Ferns. 

Parallel Venation is typical of the Monocotyledons , as Palms, 
Lilies, Grasses, etc. . 

Reticulate or Netted Veins characterize the Dicotyledons , as the 
Poplar or Oak. The primary veins in these are generally pinnate while 
the secondary ones and their branches are arranged in netted fashion. 

Pinni-veined or Feathered-veined leaves consist of a mid-vein with 
lateral veinlets extending from mid-vein to margin at frequent 
intervals and in a regular manner. Example: Calla. 

Palmately Veined leaves consist of a number of veins of nearly the 
same size, radiating from petiole to margin. Example: Maple leaf. 

Veins are said to be anastomosing when they subdivide and join 
each other, as the veins near the margin of Eucalyptus leaves. 

Leaf Insertion.—The point of attachment of the leaf to the stem is 
called the insertion. A leaf is: 

Radical , when inserted upon an underground stem. 

Cauline, when upon an aerial stem. 

Ramal, when attached directly to a branch. 

When the base of a sessile leaf is extended completely around the 
stem it is perfoliate , the stem appearing to pass through the blade. 
Example: Uvularia perfoliata or Mealy Bellwort. 


i6o 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 



Fig. 83.—Leaf outlines: Linear (1); lanceolate (2); oblong (3); elliptical (4); 
ovate-lanceolate (5); oblanceolate (6); spatulate (7); obovate-lanceolate (8); 
orbicular (9); reniform (10); cuneate (11). 





























PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


161 


When a sessile leaf surrounds the stem more or less at the base, 
it is called clasping or amplexicaul. Example: Poppy ( Papaver 
somniferum). 

When the bases of two opposite leaves are so united as to form 
one piece, they are called connate-perfoliate , as Eupatorium perfolia- 
tum or Boneset. 

Leaves are called equitant when they are all radical and succes¬ 
sively folded on each other toward their bases, as in Iris sp. 

The Forms of Leaves.— Simple leaves are those having a single 
blade, either sessile or petiolate. 

Compound leaves are divided into two or more distinct subdivi¬ 
sions called leaflets, which may be either sessile or petiolate. 

Simple leaves and the separate blades of compound leaves are de¬ 
scribed as to general outline, apex, base, marginal indentations, sur¬ 
face and texture. 

(a) General Outline (form viewed as a whole without regard to 
indentations of margin). Dependent upon kind of venation. 

When the lower veins are longer and larger than the others, the 
leaf is Ovate, or Egg-shaped. Parallel-veined leaves are usually 
linear, long and narrow of nearly equal breadth throughout 
(Linaria), or lanceolate, like the linear with the exception that the 
broadest part is a little below the center. Example: Long 
Buchu. 

Elliptical, somewhat longer than wide, with rounded ends and 
sides. Example: Leaf of Pear. 

Oblong, when longer than broad, margins parallel. Example: 
Matico. 

Inequilateral, margin longer on one side than the other, as the 
Hamamelis, Elm and Linden. 

Orbicular, circular in shape. Example: Nasturtium. 

Peltate, or shield-shaped, having the petiole inserted at the center 
of the lower surface of the lamina. Example: Podophyllum. 

Filiform, or thread-like, very long and narrow, as Asparagus leaves. 

Ovate, broadly elliptical. Example: Boldo. Obovate, reversely 
ovate. Examples: Short Buchu and Menyanthes. 

Oblanceolate, reversely lanceolate. Example: Chimaphila. 

Cuneate, shaped like a wedge with the point backward. 


ii 


162 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 



Pig. 84.—Leaf bases (12-17); leaf apices (18-26); compound leaves (27-31). 
Cordate (12);‘auriculate (13); connate-perfoliate (14); sagittate (15); hastate 
(16); peltate (17). Acuminate (18); acute (19); obtuse (20); truncate (21); retuse 
(22); emarginate (23); cuspidate (24); mucronate (25); aristate (26). Imparipin- 
nate (27); paripinnate (28); bi-pinnate (29); decompound (30); palmately 
S-foliate (31). 























PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 163 

Spatulate, like a spatula, with narrow base and broad rounded 
apex. Example: Uva Ursi. 

Ensiform, when shaped like a sword. Example: Calamus. 

Acerose or acicular, tipped with a needle-like point, as Juniper. 

Falcate , sythe or sickel shaped as Eucalyptus. 

Deltoid , when the shape of the Greek letter A, as Chenopodium. 

(b) Apex of Leaf.— Acute , when the margins form an acute angle 
at the tip of the leaf. Examples: Eriodictyon, Digitalis. 

Acuminate, when the point is longer and more tapering than the 
acute. Examples: Pellitory, Coffee. 

Obtuse , blunt or round. Example: Long Buchu. 

Truncate, abruptly obtuse, as if cut square off. Example: Meli- 
lotus leaflets. 

Mucronate, terminating in a short, soft point. Example: Senna 
leaflets. 

Cuspidate, like the last, except that the point is long and rigid. 

Aristate, with the apex terminating in a bristle. 

Emarginate, notched. Example: Pilocarpus. 

Retuse, with a broad, shallow sinus at the apex. Example: Petal 
of Rosa gallica. 

Obcordate, inversely heart-shaped. Example: Oxalis. 

(c) Base or Leaf.— Cordate, heart-shaped. Examples: Lime and 
Coltsfoot. 

Reniform, kidney-shaped. Examples: Ground Ivy, Asarum. 

Hastate, or halbert-shaped, when the lobes point outward from 
the petiole. Example: Aristolochia Serpentaria. 

Auriculate, having ear-like appendages at the base. Example: 
Philodendron. 

Sagittate, arrow-shaped. Example: Bindweed. 

Cuneate, wedge shaped. Examples: Short Buchu and Uva Ursi. 

( d ) Margin of Leaf.— Entire, when the margin is an even line. 
Example: Belladonna. 

Serrate, with sharp teeth which incline forward like the teeth of a 
hand-saw. Examples: Peppermint, Yerba Santa, Buchu. 

Dentate, or toothed, with outwardly projecting teeth. Chestnut. 

Crenate, or Scalloped, similar to the preceding forms, but with the 
teeth much rounded. Examples: Digitalis, Salvia. 


164 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 



Fig. 85.—Leaf margins: Pinnately-lobed (32); pinnately-cleft (33); pinnately- 
parted (34); pinnately-divided (35); palmately tri-lobed (36); palmately tri-cleft 
(37); palmately 3-parted (38); palmately 3-divided (39); crenate (40); serrate 
(41); dentate (42); repand or undulate (43); sinuate-dentate (44). 














PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 165 

Repand, or Undulate, margin—a wavy line. Example: Hama- 
melis. 

Sinuate, when the margin is more distinctly sinuous than the last. 
{Stramonium.) 

Incised, cut by sharp, irregular incisions. Example: Hawthorn. 

Runcinate, the peculiar form of pinnately incised leaf observed in 
the Dandelion and some other Composite in which the teeth are 
recurved. 

A Lobed leaf is one in which the indentations extend toward the 
mid-rib, or the apex of the petiole, the segments or sinuses, or 
both, being rounded. Example: Sassafras. 

Cleft is the same as lobed, except that the sinuses are deeper, and 
commonly acute. Example: Dandelion. 

A Parted leaf is one in which the incisions extend nearly to the 
mid-rib or the petiole. Example: Geranium maculatum. 

In the Divided leaf the incisions extend to the mid-rib, or the 
petiole, but the segments are not stalked. Example: Watercress. 

If the venation is pinnate, the preceding forms may be described 
as pinnately incised, lobed, parted, or divided. If the venation is 
radiate, then the terms radiately or palmately lobed, incised, etc., 
are employed. 

The transition from Simple to Compound Leaves is a very gradual 
one, so that in many instances it is difficult to determine whether a 
given form is to be regarded as simple or compound. The number 
and arrangement of the parts of a compound leaf correspond with 
the mode of venation, and the same descriptive terms are applied 
to outline, margin, etc., as in simple leaves. 

Leaves are either pinnately or palmately compounded. The term 
pinnate is frequently given to the former while that of palmate is 
often assigned to the latter. They are said to be abruptly pinnate 
or paripinnate when the leaf is terminated by a pair of leaflets; odd 
pinnate or imparipinnate when it terminates with a single leaflet. 
When the leaflets are alternately large and small, the leaf is inter¬ 
ruptedly pinnate, as the Potato leaf. When the terminal leaflet is 
the largest, and the remaining ones diminish in size toward the base 
the form is known as lyrate, illustrated in the leaf of the Turnip. 

Palmately compound leaves have the leaflets attached to the 


i66 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


apex of .the petiole. When these are two in number the leaf is 
bifoliate , or binate; if three in number, trifoliate, or ternate, as in 
Menyanthes; when four in number, quadrifoliate, etc. If each of 
the leaflets of a palmately compound leaf divides into three, the leaf 
is called biternate; if this form again divides, a triternate leaf results. 
Beyond this point the leaf is known as decompound. In the case 
of pinnately-compound leaves, when division progresses so as to 
separate what would be a leaflet into two or more, the leaf becomes 
bipinnate , as the compound leaves of Acacia Senegal or on the new 
wood of Gleditschia; if these become again divided, as in many 
Acacia species, the leaf is termed tripinnate. Examples of decom¬ 
pound leaves seen in Cimicifuga and Parsley. 

Leaf Texture.—Leaves are described as: 

Membranous , when thin and pliable, as Coca. 

Succulent , when thick and fleshy, as Aloes, and Live Forever. 

Coriaceous , when thick and leathery, as Eucalyptus, Uva Ursi 
and Magnolia. 

Leaf Color.— Petaloid, when of some brilliant color different from 
the usual green, as the Coleus and Begonia, and other plants which • 
are prized for the beauty of their foliage rather than their blossoms. 

Leaf Surface.—Any plant surface is: 

* Glabrous , when perfectly smooth and free from hairs or protuber¬ 
ances. Example: Tulip. 

Glaucous , when covered with bloom, as the Cabbage leaf. 

Pellucid-punctate , when dotted with oil glands, as the leaves of 
the Orange family. 

Scabrous leaves have a rough surface with minute, hard points. 

Pubescent, covered with short, soft hairs. Example: Strawberry. 

Villose, covered with long and shaggy hairs. Exampler Forget- 
me-not. 

Sericious, silky. Example: Silverleaf. 

Hispid, when covered with short, stiff hairs. Example: Borage. 

Tomentose, densely pubescent and felt-like, as the Mullein leaf. 

Spinose, beset with spines, as in the Thistle. 

Rugose, when wrinkled. Example: Sage. 

Verrucose, covered with protuberances or warts, as the calyx of 
Chenopodium. 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


167 


Duration of Leaves.—Leaves vary as to their period of duration. 
They are: Persistent, or evergreen, if they remain green on the tree 
for a year or more. 

Deciduous, if unfolding in spring and falling in autumn. 

Caducous, or fugacious, if falling early in the season. 

Parts of Typical Leaf.—The parts of a typical leaf are petiole or 
leaf stalk, lamina or blade, and stipules. 

Gross Structure and Histology of the Petiole.—The petiole in 
Monocotyledons is usually a broadened, sheathing basal structure 
which connects the lamina to the stem. Into this a set of closed 
collateral vascular bundles of the stem extend, these showing xylem 
uppermost and phloem beneath; but in the Palmacece, Aracece, 
Dioscoreacece and Musacece the petiole in part or throughout may be 
much thickened, strengthened and developed as a semi-cylindric or 
cylindric structure frequently showing, as in Palmacece, generally, 
two sets of bundles. In all of these the petiole shows distinct scat¬ 
tered closed collateral bundles embedded in parenchyma and sur¬ 
rounded by epidermis. In the Monocotyl genus Maranta a special 
swelling is found at the apex of the petiole which is termed a pulvinus. 

In Dicotyledons the petiole attains its most perfect development 
and here usually shows differentiation into a pulvinus or leaf cushion 
and stalk portion. The pulvinus is sensitive to environal stimuli 
and in some groups as Oxalidacece and Leguminosce a gradual increase 
in sensitivity up to a perfect response can be traced. Moreover, in 
these, if we start with the simpler less sensitive pulvini and pass by 
stages to the most complex, we note that a special substance known 
as the aggregation body develops in the pulvinar cortex cells and 
that this substance undergoes rapid molecular change on stimulation 
of the leaf. The stalk portion of the petiole in Dicotyledons is 
usually plano-convex or nearly to quite circular in outline; rarely in 
certain families does it simulate Monocotyledons in becoming 
abruptly or gradually thinned or flattened or widened out so as to 
sheath round the stem. The most striking example of this is seen in 
the Umbelliferce where the flattened sheathing leaf stalk is known as 
the pericladium. Such a structure is not peculiar to the Umbelli - 
ferce for in many Ranunculacece, etc., a similar sheathing development 
is observed. The stalk may bear the laminar tissue on its extremity. 


i68 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


This is most commonly the rule, but when the plant is exposed to 
xerophytic conditions, as the Acacias of Australia, the stalk, instead 
of being cylindric or sub-cylindric, becomes flattened from side to 
side, until there is produced a bifacial vertically placed petiole, with 
a large green surface that wholly takes the place of the lamina. 

The petiolar structure in primitive types of Dicotyls resembles 
that seen in Monocotyls except that the bundles are more con¬ 
densed side by side. In these the petiole is somewhat dorsiventral, 
shows an external epidermis, a flattened cortex with a set of parallel 
vascular bundles, each with xylem uppermost and phloem below. 
From this we pass to another group in which the bundles form 
three-fourths of a circle and in which the upper bundles show incurv¬ 
ing orientation, to still another in which, as in Nepenthes , all of the 
bundles form nearly a cylinder. Finally in Ficus, Geranium, Podo¬ 
phyllum and other plants showing conpletely formed cylindric 
petioles, the bundles form a continuous ring enclosing pith and sur¬ 
rounded by cortex and epidermis, as in Dicotyl stems. 

Stipules.—Stipules are lateral leafy or membranous outgrowths 
from the base of the petiole at its junction with the stem. They 
may be divided into two groups, viz.: lateral and axillary. The 
lateral group includes four types, namely, free lateral, lateral adnate, 
lateral connate and lateral interpetiolar. 

Free lateral stipules are seen in Leguminosce, Rosacece, Beeches, 
etc. They are free on either side of the petiole and supplied by 
vascular tissue from the petiolar bundle mass. In appearance and 
duration they may be either green, foliaceous and persistent or mem¬ 
branous to leathery, scale-like and caducous. Caducous scaly stip¬ 
ules only function as bud scales through the winter and fall in spring 
as the buds expand. 

Lateral adnate stipules are such as fuse with and are carried up 
with the petiole as wing-like appendages. This type is seen in the 
genus Rosa, in Clovers, etc. 

Lateral connate stipules are such as join and run up with the 
petiole to form a structure which is called a ligule. This structure 
is common to the Gramineae or Grass family. 

Lateral interpetiolar stipules are common to many species of the 
Rubiacece. In the genus Cinchona the leaves are opposite and orig- 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 169 

inally had free lateral stipules which latter gradually fused with the 
stem, slid across it and adjacent stipules, then fused together to 
form a median structure on either side of the stem. 

The axillary group represent stipules which stand in the axil of 
the leaf with the stem. Such may be free axillary structures, arising 
as distinct processes, or connate, when the two stipules unite at their 
margins and sheath the stem, as in many species of the Polygonacece 
such as Buckwheat, Rhubarb, Yellow Dock, Knot Weeds, etc. The 
sheath formed is called an ochrea. 

Modified Stipules.-—In some plants such as the Locust and several 
other trees and shrubs of the Legume family, the stipules become 
modified for defensive purposes as spines or prickles. In the Sarsa¬ 
parilla-yielding plants and other species of the genus Smilax they 
undergo modification into tendrils which are useful in climbing. 

The Lamina. —This as was previously indicated represents an ex¬ 
pansion of the tissues of the petiole, but in sessile leaves is directly 
attached to the stem and so a direct stem outgrowth. 

Mode of Development of the Lamina of Leaves.—The lamina of 
leaves develops in one .of six ways. 

1. Normal or Dorsoventral. 

2. Convergent. 

3. Centric. 

4. Bifacial. 

5. Reversed. 

6. Ob-dorsi-ventral. 

The first foui will be considered. 

A. Dorsoventral (the commonest). 

(a) Dorsoventral Umbrophytic. —Flattened from above downward. 
Plants with such leaf blades tend to grow in the shade. 

(b) Dorfyspventral Mesophytic. —Similar to the former, but plants 
usuallv grow directly in the open and exposed to sunlight and winds. 

( c) Dorspver tral Xerophytic. —Similar to former, but plants not 
only grow exposed, but exposed to hot desert Conditions or to cold 
vigorous conditions. 

(d) Dorsoventral Hydrophytic. —All transitions between typical 
mesophytic forms to those of marshy places, to swamps and borders 
of streams and finally with leaves wholly emersed, the last a com¬ 
pletely hydrophytic type. 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


170 

Gross Structure and Histology of Different Types of Dorsoventral 
Leaf Blades.—1. Umbropbytic. —Characterized by leaver mostly 
undivided and having the largest and most continuous leaf expanse. 
Usually the deepest green leaves we have, to enable the leaves to 



Fig. 86.—Transverse section through portion of dorsoventral leaf blade of 
horehound (Marrubium vulgare). Upper epidermis devoid of stomata ( up.ep.); 
lower epidermis which possesses stomata ( l . ep); palisade parenchyma (pal.); 
spongy parenchyma ( sp. p); xylem (*) and phloem (ph) regions of fibrovascular 
tissue of stronger vein; long-pointed non-glandular trichome ( t ); .branched tri- 
chomes (ft 1 , ft 2 , ft 3 )’, several types of glandular trichomes (gt, gt 2 , gt 3 , gl 4 ). 

absorb scattered and reduced rays that pass in through high trees 
and shrub overhead. Their texture is usually thin and soft. In 
microscopic structure they are covered with a cutinized epidermis 
which has all the stomata on the lower surface. The mesophyll is 
fairly spongy, the spongy parenchyma having decided intercellular 






PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


171 

spaces. The lower epidermis is more or less hairy. Examples: 
Dog’s Tooth Violet, Asteis. 

2. Mesophytic. —Leaves tend to subdivision, either to slight or 
moderate lobing, seldom to complete subdivision in pinnate or 
tripinnate fashion. Example: Dandelion. In microscopic struc¬ 
ture, they consist of an upper and lower epidermis, the upper epider- 



V s 

Fig. 87.—Photomicrograph of cross-section through a portion of the leaf of a 
xerophyte. Ficus elastica, showing upper epidermis ( u.e .), water storage tissue 
( w.s .), cystolith suspended on stalk within a cystolith sac (cys), palisade paren¬ 
chyma (p'p.), spongy parenchyma ( s.p .), vein ( v ), lower epidermis (l.e.), and 
stoma (5). (Highly magnified.) 

mis being the thicker of the two. The stomata are wholly or are 
mainly on the lower epidermis. Hairs are seldom seen. The pali¬ 
sade mesophyll is toward the upper surface, the spongy mesophyll 
toward the lower. The intercellular-air-spaces in the spongy paren¬ 
chyma are small. 

3. Xerophytic.—Leaves characterized by a thick upper and lower 
cuticle and by having their numerous, small stomata restricted to 




172 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


the lower surface or present more or less equally on both surfaces, 
where they are sunken in depressions. They may be either firm, 
leathery, tough, fibrous, or may become swollen up in their meso- 
phyll chiefly in their spongy parenchyme cells and store consider¬ 
able mucilage. Examples: Yucca, Ficus, Aloe, Agave. Succulent 
forms like Aloe generally possess a thin but tenacious cuticle. 

4. Hydrophytic.—All gradations are seen. In pond plants, such 
as the Water Lily, the leaves have long split petioles which bring 
the blade up to the surface of the water. The stomata are entirely 
on the upper surface. In Ranunculus, the lower leaves are cut up 
into filiform segments. These are devoid of stomata. Their meso- 
phyll is soft, open, and spongy. The epidermis is quite thin. The 
upper leaves are floating, trilobed, and have stomata only on their 
upper surface. In Utricularia, some of the filiform submerged leaves 
are modified into bladders which trap insect larvae and smaller 
Crustaceae. 

B. Convergent.—In Phormium tenax, the base of the blade is 
sheathing, it then converges and opens out above. In the various 
species of Iris the petiole is sheathing, the upper part being fused 
(mostly seen in monocotyls). 

C. Centric.— Succulent — Nearly always associated with Xero- 
phytes.;. 

Xerophytic. —Centric laminae are produced gradually by an en¬ 
croachment of the under on the upper surface, and the swelling of the 
whole. In a completely centric leaf of the succulent kind, like that 
of Sedum, the difference between the upper and lower surface is lost. 
Stomata are found scattered over the entire epidermis. The bundles 
are arranged in a circle, the mid-rib being in the center. A great 
deal of mucilage is found stored in the central cells. In a typical 
Xerophytic Centric leaf, like that of the Pine or Sanseviera cylin- 
drica, the epidermis shows a thick cuticle; the stomata are sunken in 
cavities of the epidermis; the epidermis and leaf tissue are strength¬ 
ened by scleroid bands in the centric mesophyll. 

D. Bifacial.—Leaves with laminae which stand edge on in relation 
to the sun’s rays. The best illustrations are seen among dicotyle¬ 
dons, such as Eucalyptus, Callistemnon, and other genera of Myr- 
tacece. Both surfaces are similar, having stomata about equal in 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


173 


number. The mesophyll is differentiated into a central spongy paren- 
chyme containing bundles, and a zone of palisade cells on either 
side facing the epidermises. 

Structure and Development of Stomata. —Stomata are slit-like 
openings in the epidermis of leaves or young green stems surrounded 


o.r. ep. v. p.p. 



ep. p.p. 


Fig. 88 .—Photomicrograph of a transverse section of a bifacial leaf of Eucalyp¬ 
tus globulus showing epidermis (ep.), palisade parenchyma (p.p.), toward both 
surfaces, spongy parenchyma (s.p.), vein (v), and oil reservoir (o.r.) lined with 
secretory epithelium. (Highly magnified.) 


by a pair of cells, called guard cells, whose sides opposite one another 
are concave. They form a communication between the intercellular- 
air-space (respiratory cavity) beneath them and the exterior. The 
slit-like opening taken with the guard cells, constitutes what is known 
as the stomatal apparatus. 











i 74 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


The epidermal cells which abut on the stomatal apparatus are 
called neighboring cells or subsidiary cells. These in many cases, as 
in species of Helleborus, Sambuscus, Hyacinthus , Pceonia , Ferns, etc., 
are very similar to the other epidermal cells, but in a large number of 
plants they differ in size, arrangement and shape from the other 
cells of the epidermis which do not abut upon the stomatal apparatus. 
In Senna they are two in number one larger than the other and 
arranged parallel to the guard cells of the stoma; in Coca a similar 
arrangement occurs but the cells are more even in size, nevertheless 
they lack the characteristic papillae found on the other epidermal 
cells; in Pilocarpus they are usually four in number but quite narrow 
and more or less crescent-sl aped; in TJva Ur si their number is usu¬ 
ally seven to eight and their arrangement radial around the stomata 
apparatus. 

On all dorsoventral leaves, the stomata arise more abundantly on 
the lower epidermis, less abundantly on .the upper. Exceptions to 
this rule are due to the peculiar readaptation of the leaf to its sur¬ 
roundings. Thus, in the reversed types of leaves (twisted in a half 
circle) the stomata, formerly on the lower surface, have migrated to 
the upper surface which now has become the physiological lower 
surface. 

In Umbrophytic (shade) plants the stomata are either wholly on 
the lower surface or partly so with a number on the upper surface. 
Where the plants are Mesophytic and exposed to dense sunlight and 
leaves remain dorsoventral, the stomata are on the lower surface; 
these stomata are large, if the surroundings are damp. If such 
plants live in dry soil and dry air, the stomata are of small size and 
numerous; if they dwell in dry soil in hot surroundings and dense 
light they are very small and frequently sunk. If the plants are 
Xerophytic and the leaves dorsoventral, the stomata are quite abun¬ 
dant, small, with narrow slit, and depressed below the level of the 
epidermis. 

There are five types of stomatal development, viz.: 

First Type. —Each primitive epidermal cell (or the majority, or 
only certain ones of the epidermis) at the close of the dermatogen 
stage, gradually lengthens and then cuts off a smaller from a larger 
cell. The smaller one is equilateral, has a very large nucleus, and is 
termed the Stoma Mother-cell ; the larger, quadrangular, and called 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


175 


the Epidermal Daughter-cell. The latter, upon maturing, becomes a 
normal epidermal cell. A partition is laid down lengthwise through 
the Stoma Mother-cell dividing it into two stomatal daughter-cells. 
The wall laid down lengthwise splits and thus forms the orifice of the 
stoma; the cells on either side of the orifice are called Guard Cells. 



Fig. 89. —Types of stomatal apparatuses and neighboring cells from different 
sources. In A, a portion of the lower epidermis of Easter Lily leaf. The sto¬ 
matal apparatus is surrounded by neighboring cells that are similar to other 
epidermal cells adjacent to them; in B, lower epidermis of Senna leaflet, note 
the two neighboring cells parallel to the guard cells, one being larger than the 
other; C, lower epidermis of Coca leaf showing two neighboring cells, parallel 
to the guard cells but nearly equal in size as well as papillated regular epidermal 
cells; D, lower epidermis of Pilocarpus showing rounded stomatal apparatus 
and four crescent-shaped neighboring cells; E, lower epidermis of Uva Ursi, 
showing eight neighboring cells arranged radiately around stomatal apparatus; 
F, lower epidermis of Stramonium. 


These, while at first flat and inoperative, soon become bulged and 
crescent-shaped. This mode of development is seen in Squill, 
Hyacinth, Daffodil, Sambucus, Silene, etc. 

Second Type. —After the cutting off of the stomal mother-cell 
there are cut off on either side portions of neighboring epidermal cells 
which form subsidiary cells to the stoma. This condition is seen in 
Graminece, Cyperacece, Juncacece, in various species of Aloe, Musa and 
Proteacece. 








176 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Third Type. —Instead of two parallel subsidiary cells, four are cut 
off, as in Heliconia , in species of Tradescantia, Araucaria , or four to 
five, as in Ficus elastica , or four to five or more, as in the Conifer a 
and Cycdds. 

Fourth Type* —Instead of only four subsidiary cells, each of these 
again subdivides by parallel walls, more rarely by radial walls, into 
eight radiating subsidiary cells, as in Maranta bicolor, Pothos argyrcea, 
some of Proteacece, etc. 

Fifth Type. —The “stomal mother-cell” divides once or several 
times before becoming the true mother-cell of the stoma. As a 
result of the divisions there are also formed one or more subsidiary 
cells. This mode of development is seen in the Labiatce, Papilio- 
nacece, Cruciferce , Solanacece, Crassulacece, Cactacece, and Begoniacece, 
also in a number of ferns. 

Histologic Differences between Leaves of Dicotyledons and 
Monocotyledons. —The following may be cited as broad compara¬ 
tive histologic differences between Dicotyl and Monocotyl leaves: 


Dicotyl Leaves 

1. Epidermal cells usually iso-dia- 

metric or sinuous. 

2. The stomata are on the whole more 

numerous but smaller. 

3. Non-glandular and glandular hairs 

frequent, or upper but more fre¬ 
quent on lower surface, or both. 

4. Leaf glands which excrete varied 

products are rather abundant. 

5. Water stomata over the upper sur¬ 

face, more rarely over the lower 
surface, are frequent, especially 
along margins of leaves. 

6. Palisade and spongy parenchyma 

in dicotyledons are more distinct 
and palisade parenchyma is 
denser. 

7. The vascular bundles, in their in¬ 

trinsic elements, are more indur¬ 
ated but the accessory fibrous 
sheath is feebly developed. 

8. A greater variety of accessory prod¬ 

ucts of assimilation are de¬ 
veloped. 


Monocotyl Leaves 

1. Epidermal cells usually elongate 

and equilateral. 

2. Stomata larger. 

3. Hairs rare in Monocotyls. 

4. Leaf glands rare and only seen as a 

rule on the sepals. 

5. Water stomata absent or very rare. 

Present in some Aracece. 


6. Palisade and spongy parenchyma 
are less distinct and dense. 


7. The vascular bundles, in their in¬ 

trinsic elements, are less indur¬ 
ated. The fibrous sheath is 
strongly developed. 

8. A comparatively small variety of 

accessory products of assimila¬ 
tion are developed. 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


177 


INFLORESCENCE 

Inflorescence or Anthotaxy. —A typical flower consists of four 
whorls of leaves modified for the purpose of reproduction, and com¬ 
pactly placed on a stem. The terms Inflorescence and Anthotaxy 
are applied to the arrangement of the flowers and their position on 
the stem, both of which are governed by the same law which deter¬ 
mines the arrangement of leaves. For this reason flower buds are 
always either terminal or axillary. In either case the bud may de¬ 
velop a solitary flower or a compound inflorescence consisting of 
several flowers. 



Determinate , cymose, descending , or centrifugal inflorescence is that 
form in which the flower bud is terminal, and thus determines or 
completes the growth of the stem. Example: Ricinus communis. 

Indeterminate , ascending , or centripetal inflorescence is that form in 
which the flower buds are axillary, while the terminal bud continues 
to develop and increase the growth of the stem indefinitely. Exam¬ 
ple: the Geranium. 

Mixed inflorescence is a combination of the other two formsr 
Example: Horse Chestnut. 


12 








i 7 8 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 



The flower stalk is known as the peduncle, and its prolongation the 
rachis, or axis of the inflorescence. 

The flower stalk of a single flower of an inflorescence is called a 
pedicel. When borne without such support the flower is sessile. 

A peduncle rising from the 
ground is called a scape , 
previously mentioned under 
the subject of stems. 

The modified leaves found 
on peduncles are termed bracts. 
These vary much the same as 
leaf forms, are described in a 
similar manner, and may be 
either green or colored. When 
collected in a whorl at the 
base of the peduncle they 
form an involucre, the parts of 
which are sometimes imbri¬ 
cated or overlapping, like 
shingles. This is generally 
green, but sometimes petaloid, 
as in the Dogwood. The 
modified leaves found on pedi¬ 
cels are called bracteolar leaves. 

The Spathe is a large bract 
enveloping the inflorescence 
and often colored, as in the 

Fig. 91.—Photomicrograph of longi- Calla, or membranous, as in 
tudinal section through a staminate Daffodil 

catkin of Comptonia asplenifolia X 10, . 

showing catkin axis (ax), anther-lobe (a), Indeterminate Inflores- 

and bract_(&). cences. —In the indeterminate 

or axillary anthotaxy, either 
flowers are produced from base to apex, those blossoming first 
which are lowest down on the rachis or from margin to center. The 
principal forms of this type are: 

Solitary Indeterminate. —The simplest form of inflorescence in 
which a single flower springs from the axil of a leaf. A number of 





PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 179 

these are generally developed on the same stem. Example: 
Periwinkle. 

Raceme , or simple flower-cluster in which the flowers on pedicels 
of nearly equal length are arranged along an axis. Examples: 
Convallaria, Cimicifuga, and Currant. 

Corymb , a short, broad cluster, differing from the raceme mainly in 
its shorter axis and longer lower pedicels, which give the cluster a 
flat appearance by bringing the individual florets to nearly the same 
level. Example: Cherry. 

Umbel , which resembles the raceme, but has a very short axis, and 
the nearly equal pedicels radiate from it like the rays of an umbrella. 
Many examples of this mode of inflorescence are seen in the family 
Umbelliferce, as indicated by the name, including Anise, Fennel and 
other drug-yielding official plants. 

A Spike is a cluster of flowers, sessile or nearly so, borne on an 
elongated axis. The Mullein and common Plantain afford good 
illustrations. 

The Catkin or Ament resembles the Spike , but differs in that it 
has scaly instead of herbaceous bracts, as the staminate flowers of the 
Oak, Hazel, Willow, Comptonia, etc. 

The Head or Capitulum is like a spike, except that it has the rachis 
shortened, so as to form a compact cluster of sessile flowers, as in the 
Dandelion, Marigold, Clover, and Burdock. 

The Strobile is a compact flower cluster with large scales concealing 
the flowers, as the inflorescence of the Hop. 

The Spadix is a thick, .fleshy rachis with flowers closely sessile or 
embedded on it, usually with a spathe or sheathing bract. Example: 
Calla , Acorus Calamus , Arum triphyllum. 

The compound raceme, particularly if irregularly compounded, is 
called a panicle. Ex. Hagenia abyssinica. 

Determinate Inflorescences.— Determinate Anthotaxy is one in 
which the first flower that opens is the terminal one on the axis, the 
other appearing in succession from apex to base or from center to 
margin. The principal varieties are: 

The Solitary Determinate , in which there is a single flower borne 
on the scape, as in the Anemone , or Windflower, and Hydrastis. 

The Cyme , a flower cluster resembling a corymb, except that the 


i8o 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


buds develop from center to circumference. Example: Elder. If 
the cyme be rounded, as in the Snowball, it is a globose cyme. 

A Scorpioid Cyme imitates a raceme, having the flowers pedicelled 
and arranged along alternate sides of a lengthened axis. 

A Glomerule is a cymose inflorescence of any sort which is con¬ 
densed into a head, as the so-called head of Cornus jlorida. 

A Verticillaster is a compact, cymose flower cluster which resembles 
a whorl, but really consists of two glomerules situated in the axils 
of opposite leaves. Clusters of this kind are seen in Catnip, Hore- 
hound, Peppermint and other plants of the Labiatce. 



Pig. 92. —Cymose inflorescences. F, A terminal flower; G, a simple cyme; H, 
a compound cyme. (From Hamaker.) 


The raceme, corymb, umbel, etc., are frequently compounded. 
The compound raceme, or raceme with branched pedicels, is called a 
panicle. Examples: Yucca and paniculate inflorescence of the Oat. 

A Thyrsus is a compact panicle, of a pyramidal or oblong shape. 
Examples: Lilac, Grape and Rhus glabra. 

A Mixed Anthotaxy is one, in which the determinate and indeter¬ 
minate plans are combined, and illustrations of this are of frequent 
occurrence. 

The order of flower development is termed ascending when, as in 
the raceme, the blossoms open first at the lower point on the axis and 
continue to the apex. Examples: White Lily, and many other 





PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


181 


plants of the same family. In the cyme the development is centri¬ 
fugal, the central florets opening first, while in the corymb it is 
centripetal, or from margin to center. 

PREFLORATION 

Prefloration. —By prefloration is meant the arrangement of the 
floral envelopes in the bud. It is to the flower bud what vernation is 
to the leaf bud, the same descriptive terms being largely employed, 
as convolute, involute, revolute, plicate, imbricate, etc. 

In addition to those already defined, the following are important. 

Valvate Prefloration , in which the margins meet but do not oyer- 
lap. Of this variety the induplicate has its two margins rolled 
inward as in Clematis. In the reduplicate they are turned outward, 
as the sepals of Althaea. 

Vexillary, the variety shown in the corolla of the Pea, where the 
two lower petals are overlapped by two lateral ones, and the four in 
turn overlapped by the larger upper ones. 

Contorted, where one margin is invariably exterior and the other 
interior, giving the bud a twisted appearance, as in the Oleander and 
Phlox. 

THE FLOWER 

The flower is a shoot which has undergone a series of changes so as 
to serve as a means for the propagation of the individual. 

A Typical or Complete Flower possesses four whorls of floral leaves 
arranged upon a more or less shortened stem axis called a receptacle, 
torus or thalamus. These whorls passing from periphery toward the 
center are: calyx, composed of parts called sepals; corolla, composed 
of parts termed petals; andrcecium, composed of parts called stamens 
or microsporopylls; and gyncecium, composed of one or more parts 
termed carpels or megasporophylls. 

The stamens and carpels constitute the essential organs, and a 
flower is said to be Perfect when these are present and functional. 

A Hermaphrodite flower is one which possesses both stamens and 
carpels which mayor may not be functionally active. In some cases 
the stamens may alone be functional while in others the carpels 
only may function. 


182 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


A Regular Flower possesses parts of each whorl of the same shape 
and size, as the flower of Veratrum. 

It is Symmetrical when the parts of each whorl are of the same 
number, or multiples of the same number. 

An Imperfect Flower shows one set of essential organs wanting. 

When either petals or sepals, or both, are present in more than the 
usual number, the flower is said to be “double,” as the cultivated 



Pig. 93. —Diagrams of floral structures. A, Shows the relations of the floral 
parts in a hypogynous flower; B, the same in a perigynous flower; C, the same 
in an epigynous flower; D, a stamen; E, a simple pistil in longitudinal section; 
F, the same in cross-section; G, transitional forms between true petals (left) and 
true stamens (right); H, slight union of two carpels to form a compound pistil; 
I and J, union of carpels more complete; K and L, cross-sections of compound 
pistils, oijthree carpels. In B: a, stamen; b, petal; c, sepal; d, pistil; e, receptacle; 
/, pedicel. In D: a, anther cell; b, connective; c, filament. In £: o, stigma; 
b, style; c, ovules; d, ovary. (From Hamaker.) 


Rose and Carnation. The doubling of flowers is brought about 
through cultivation and is due either to the transformation of sta¬ 
mens (as in cases cited), and occasionally of carpels into petals, to a 
division of the petals, or to the formation of a new series of petals. 

If the pistils are present and stamens wanting, the flower is called 
pistillate, or female; if it possesses stamens but no pistil, it is described 
as staminate, or male; if both are absent, neutral, as marginal flow¬ 
ers of Viburnum. Some plants, as the Begonias and Castor oil, bear 
both staminate and pistillate flowers, and are called Monoecious. 











PLANT ORGANS AND~ORGANISMS 183 

When the staminate and pistillate flowers are borne on different 
plants of the same species, they are termed Dioecious, as the Sassafras 
and Willow. When staminate, pistillate and hermaphrodite flowers 
are all borne on one plant, as on the Maple trees, they are polygamous. 

Connation and Adnation.—In the development of the flowers of 
primitive species of flowering plants, the parts of each whorl are dis¬ 
joined or separate from each other. In many higher types, however, 
the parts of the same whorl frequently become partly or completely 
united laterally. This condition is termed connation, coalescence, 
cohesion or syngenesis. Illustrations of this may be seen in Bella¬ 
donna, Stramonium and Uva Ursi flowers, where the petals have 
joined laterally to form gamopetalous corollas. When the one or 
more parts of different whorls are united, as of stamens with petals 
(Rhammus) or stamens with carpels (Apocynum) the union is called 
adnation or adhesion. 

The Receptacle.—The Receptacle, Torus or Thalamus is a more or 
less. shortened axis (branch) which bears the floral leaves. It is 
usually flat or convex, but may be conical and fleshy as in the Straw¬ 
berry, concave as in the Rose and Fig or show a disc-like modifica¬ 
tion as in the Orange. The internodes of the receptacle in many 
species lengthen and separate various whorls. When the lengthen¬ 
ing of the internode occurs between calyx and corolla, as in Lychnis, 
the structure resulting is called an anthophore', if between corolla and 
androecium as in Passiflora, a gonophore ; if betwen androoecium and 
gynoecium as in Geum, a gynophore. If the flowers of the Umbel - 
liferoe the receptacle elongates between the carpels producing the 
structure called a carpophore. 

The Perigone.—The perigone or perianth is the flo'ral envelope 
consisting of calyx And corolla (when present). 

When both whorls, i.e., calyx and corolla, are present the flower is 
said to be dichlamydeous', if qnly calyx is present, monochalmydeous. 

The Calyx.—The Calyx is the outer whorl of modified leaves. Its 
parts are called Sepals, and may be distinct (Chorisepalous, from a 
Greek word meaning disjoined) or more or less united (Gamosep- 
alous). They are usually green—foliaceous or leaf-like—but may 
be brilliantly colored, hence the term petaloid (like the petals) is 
applied. Examples: Tulip, Larkspur, Columbine and Aconite. 


184 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


In a gamosepalous calyx, when the union of sepals is incomplete, 
the united portion is called the tube, the free portion, the limb, the 
orifice of the tube, the throat. 

In form the calyx may be regular or irregular; regular, if its parts 
are evenly developed, and irregular if its parts differ in size and 
shape. The more common forms are tubular, resembling a tube; 
rotate, or wheel-shape; campanulate, or bell-shaped; urceolate or 
urn-shape; hypocrateriform, or salver-shape; bilabiate, or two¬ 
lipped; corresponding to the different forms of corolla, under which 
examples illustrating each will be given. 

The calyx usually remains after the corolla and stamens have 
fallen, sometimes even until the fruit matures—in either case it is 
said to be persistent. If it falls with the corolla and stamens, it is 
deciduous, and if when the flower opens, caducous, as in the Poppy 
and May-apple. It often more or less envelops the ovary or base of 
the pistil, and it is important, in plant analysis, to note the presence 
or absence of such a condition, which is indicated in a description by 
the terms inferior, or non-adherent (hypogynous), when free from 
the ovary and inserted upon the receptacle beneath it (the most 
simple and primitive position); half-superior, or half-adherent (peri- 
gynous), when it partially envelops the ovary, as in the Cherry; 
superior or adherent (epigynous), when it completely envelops it, 
as in the Colocynth, etc. 

Sepaline Spurs.—Occasionally some or all of the sepals may 
become pouched and at length spurred as nectar receptacles or as 
receptacles for other parts that are nectariferous. Thus, in Cru- 
ciferce we occasionally see a slight pouching of the two lateral sepals. 
These act as nectar pouches for the nectar secreted by the knobs or 
girdles surrounding the short lateral stamens. These become deep 
pouches in Lunaria while in others the pouches become elongated 
spurs. Again, in Delphinium, the posterior sepal forms an elongated 
spur into which pass the two spurred nectariferous petals. In 
Aconitum the same sepal, instead of being spurred, forms an enlarged 
hood-like body (galea) arching over the flower like a helmet; into 
this pass the two hammer-shaped nectariferous petals. 

Sepaline Stipules.—These structures are well developed and easily 
traceable in the more primitive herbaceous members of the Rose 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


185 

family. Thus in Potentilla, Fragaria, Geum, etc., in addition to the 
normal calyx of five sepals, there is a supplementary epicalyx also of 
five parts. The five lobes of the epicalyx may be as large or larger 
than the sepals or smaller up to the disappearing point. Upon 
examining a few flowers of Potentilla or Fragaria , it will be observed 
that not infrequently one, sometimes two lobes of the epicalyx are 
bifid, or deeply cleft, or separated completely into two parts. The 
explanation is that the five sepals, after evolving in the flower bud, 
form at their bases two lateral swellings or sepaline stipules, which, as 
they grow, fuse in adjacent pairs, one stipule of one sepal joining 
with the adjacent stipule of another sepal to form five lobes. 

Sepaline Position. —As already noted the most simple and primi¬ 
tive position for the sepals in relation to the floral parts is hypogy- 
nous, in which the sepals are inserted directly into the enlarged floral 
axis (receptacle) below the petals, stamens and carpels. But in the 
more primitive herbaceous Rosacece, Leguminosce , etc., the floral 
axis forms a saucer-like transverse expansion which pushes out the 
sepals, petals and stamens on its edge. Thus originates the perigy- 
nous insertion of the sepals. In not a few higher Rosacece, Saxifraga- 
cece, Crassulacece , etc., the saucer-like floral axis becomes deepened 
and contracted into a cup-shaped structure (Cherry, Peach, Almond, 
Plum, etc.), and on the edge of this cup the sepals as well as the petals 
and stamens are inserted at different levels. Finally, in the Apple, 
Pear, Quince, etc., the greatly hollowed-out receptacle assumes a 
vase-shaped form and closes over the top of the ovary, at the same 
time lifting the sepals, petals, and stamens above the ovary. Here 
the sepals are epigynous. 

The Corolla. —The Corolla is the inner floral envelope, usually 
delicate in texttire, and showing more or less brilliant colors and 
combinations of color. Its parts are called Petals, and when the 
calyx closely resembles the corolla in structure and coloring they 
are together called the Perianth. The purpose of these envelopes 
is to protect the reproductive organs within, and also to aid in the 
fertilization of the flower, as their bright .colors, fragrance and sac¬ 
charine secretions serve to attract pollen-carrying insects. 

Forms of the Corolla and Perianth— When the petals are not 
united with each other, the corolla is said to be Choripetalous , Apo- 


i86 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


petalous or Polypetalous. When more or less united, it is Camopeta- 
lous, often called Synpetalous. 

When the distinct petals are four in number, and arranged in the 
form of a cross, the corolla is called Cruciform. Example: Mustard 
and other plants belonging to the family Cruciferae. 

The Papilionaceous corolla is so called because of a fancied resem¬ 
blance to a butterfly. The irregularity in this form is very striking, 
and the petals bear special names: the largest one is the vexillum, or 
standard; the two beneath it the alee, or wings; the two anterior, the 
carina or keel. Examples: Locust, Pea, and Clover. 

Orchidaceous flowers are of peculiar irregularity, combining calyx 
and corolla. The petal in front of stamen and stigma, which differs 
from the others in form and secretes nectar, is called the Lahellum. 
Examples: Cypridedium and other Orchids. 

When calyx and corolla each consist of three parts closely resem¬ 
bling each other in form and color, as in the Tulip and Lily, the 
flower is called Liliaceous. 

The Ligulate or Strap-shaped corolla is nearly confined to the 
family Composite. It is usually tubular at the base, the remainder 
resembling a single petal. Examples: Marigold, and Arnica Flowers. 

Labiate , or Bilabiate, having two lips, the upper composed of two 
petals, the lower one of three. This form of corolla gives the name 
to the Labiatce, while in the family Leguminosce this arrangement is 
sometimes reversed. The corolla may be either ringent, or gaping, 
as in Sage, or personate, when the throat is nearly closed by a projec¬ 
tion of the lower lip, as in Snapdragon. 

Rotate, Wheel-shaped, when the tube is short and the divisions of 
the limb radiate from it like the spokes of a wheel. Example: The 
Potato blossom. 

Crateriform, Saucer-shaped, like the last, except that the margin 
is turned upward or cupped. Example: Kalmia latifolia (Mt. 
Laurel). 

Hypocrateriform, or Salver-shaped (more correctly, hypocrateri- 
morphous), when the tube is long and slender, as in Phlox or Trail¬ 
ing Arbutus and abruptly expands into a flat limb. The name is 
derived from that of the ancient Salver, or hypocraterium with the 
stem or handle beneath. 


« 

PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 187 



Fig. 94. —Illustrating various forms of the corolla, i, Personate bilabiate 
corolla of Linaria; 2, cruciform corolla of Rocket; 3, campanulate corolla of 
Harebell; 4, infundibuliform corolla of Bindweed; 5, ringent bilabiate corolla of 
Larkspur; 7, Ligulate corolla of Chrysanthemum; 8, rotate corolla of Pimpernel; 
9, papilionaceous corolla of Irish Broom; 10, urceolate corolla of Heath. 


\ 










PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


188 

When of nearly cylindrical form, the corolla is Tubular, as in the 
Honeysuckle, and Stramonium. 

Funnel-form (Infundibuliform), such as the corolla of the common 
Morning Glory, a tube gradually enlarging from the base upward 
into an expanded border or limb. 

Campanulate, or Bell-shaped, a tube whose length is not more 
than twice the breadth, and which expands gradually from base to 
apex. Examples: Canterbury Bell, Harebell. 

Urceolate, or Urn-shaped, when the tube is globose in shape and 
the limb at right angles to its axis, as in the official Uva Ursi, Chima- 
phila and Gaultheria. 

Caryophyllaceous, when the corolla consists of five petals, each 
with a long slender claw expanding abruptly at its summit into a 
broad limb. Examples: Carnation and other members of the Pink 
family. 

The Androecium or Stamen System.— The andrcerium is the single 
or double whorl of male organs situated within or above the corolla. 
It is composed of stamens or microsporophylls. 

' A complete stamen (Fig. 93Z)) consists of a more or less slender 
stalk portion called a filament and a terminal appendage called the 
anther or microsorus. The anther is generally vertically halved by 
an upgrowth of the filament, called the connective, dividing the anther 
into two lobes. 

Number of Stamens.—When few in number, stamens are said 
to be definite ; when very numerous, and not readily counted, they 
are indefinite. The following terms are in common use to express 
their number: 

Monandrous, for & flower with but one stamen. 

Diandrous, with two stamens. 

Triandrous, with three. 

Tetrandrous , with four. 

Pentandrous, having five. 

Hexandrous, six. 

Polyandrous, an indefinite number. 

The most primitive flowers have numerous stamens, but passing 
from these to those of more evolved families there occurs a gradual 
reduction from many to ten, as in Caryophyllacece, Leguminosoe and 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


some Aceracea, these being in two circles. In Malvacece , Umbelliferce 
and other Apopetalous families as well as many Sympetalae, the 
number five is typical. But in Scrophulariacece , while five are devel¬ 
oped and fertile in Verbascum, four with a fifth staminode (Sterile 
stamen) are found in the allied genus Celsia. In Pentstemon there 
are four didynamous fertile stamens and an equally long staminode. 
In Scrophularia the fifth staminode is reduced to a petaloid flap in 
the posterior part of the flower. In Linaria this exists only as a 
small knob at the base of the back part of the corolla and there 
secretes nectar. In most Scrophulariacece the fifth stamen is entirely 
absent and the four stamens left are didynamous; but in 
Calceolaria two of these are rudimentary and thread-like, the 
other two alone being well-developed and fertile. In Veronica 
three stamens are entirely absorbed and two only are left as 
fertile representatives. 

Insertion of Stamens. —As to insertion the stamens may be: 

Hypogynous, when inserted upon the receptacle below the base of 
the pistil (see Fig. 93 A). 

Perigynous , when inserted on the calyx or corolla above the base of 
and lateral to the pistil (see Fig. 93B). 

Epigynous, when inserted above the ovary (see Fig. 93C). 

Gynandrous, when inserted upon the pistil, as in Orchids and Aris- 
tolochia. 

Proportions of the Stamens. —The stamens may be of equal length; 
unequal, or of different length. 

Didynamous, when there are two pairs, one longer than the other. 
Example: Snapdragon. 

Tetradynamous, three pairs, two of the same length, the third 
shorter. Example: Mustard. 

Connation of Stamens. —Terms denoting connection between sta¬ 
mens are: 

Monadelphous (in one brotherhood), coalescence of the filaments 
into a tube. Example: Lobelia. 

Diadelphous (in two brotherhoods), coalescence into two sets. 
Example: Glycyrrhiza y 

Triadelphous, with filaments united into three sets. Example: 
St. John’s Wort. 


190 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Polyadelphous, when there are several sets or branched bundles. 
Example: Orange. 

Syngenesious, when the anthers cohere. Example: Composites. 

Color of Stamens. —In most species the color of these organs is 
seldom pronounced owing to their delicate structure. It varies 
from greenish-yellow to yellow to white, through pink, pinkish-red, 
red, purple, purple-blue to blue. It is yellow, for instance, in Sassa¬ 
fras, Cucumber and Golden Club; greenish-yellow, yellow to red, in 
Maples; yellow-pink to pink and pinkish-red, in some Mallows; in 
Azalea amena the filaments are crimson-purple and the anthers, pur¬ 
ple-blue; in the genus Scilla both filaments and anthers are blue. 

Gross Structure and Histology of the Filament. —The filament 
may be cylindric as in the Rose, awl-shaped as in Tulip, flat and with 
a dilated base as in the Harebell, three-toothed as in Garlic, appen- 
diculate, when it bears an appendage as in Chcetostoma, Alyssum, etc. 
The filament is covered with a protective epidermis containing 
stomata. Beneath this is a soft, loose cellular tissue, the mesophyll, 
and in the center a small vascular bundle, the pathway of food from 
the floral axis to the anther. In some cases the single bundle may 
split into two or three bundle parts. 

Gross Structure and Histology of the Anther. —Each staminal leaf 
(microsporophyll) bears a special development or appendage as a 
rule on its extremity which is the anther or microsorus. This consists, 
fundamentally, of a median prolongation of the filament equal to the 
connective or placenta. This develops on either side a quantity of 
indusial tissue that grows out to form a covering substance that 
protects and carries two microsporangia on either side. An anther 
therefore consist of a median connectine or placenta, producing on 
either side two anther lobes or indusial expansions. Each anther lobe 
encloses two pollen sacs or microsporangia, which, in some cases, 
remain distinct up to the dehiscence (splitting open) of the anther. 
Thus in Butomus, the anthers show four pollen chambers up to the 
time of dehiscence. Again in various species of Lauracece, the 
anthers remain four lobed and dehisce by four recurved lids. But in 
the great majority of Angiosperms each pair of pollen sacs fuse before 
dehiscence, owing to the breaking down of the partition between 
them, and so, at that time, show two-celled anthers. Still more 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


I 9 I 

rarely the anthers may be two-celled in their young state and by the 
breaking down of the partition become one-celled, e.g., Malvacece. 

Externally the mature anther is bounded by an exothecium or epi¬ 
dermis, often swollen, where lines of dehiscence occur, which may 
develop stomata, also hairs. Within it is a combined layer or set of 
one to often two or three, sometimes five on six cell layers (Agave, 
etc.) of indusial and sporangial cells, the endothecium. The outer¬ 
most one to three layers of this become spirally, annularly or stel- 
lately thickened to form the elastic tissue of the anther, which, by 
pressure against the delicate epidermis or exothecium, causes ulti¬ 
mate rupture of the anther wall. Within the innermost endothecial 
layer, bounding each sporangium, is the tapetum, a single-celled 
layer. This, near the time of dehiscence, undergoes breaking down 
or absorption by developing pollen or microspore cells. Filling the 
cavities of the four sporangia are the mature pollen grains. The 
connective shows in or near its center a vascular bundle with xylem 
uppermost and phloem downward, surrounded by thin-walled cellu¬ 
lar tissue, from which the indusial and sporangial substance has 
matured by extension. 

Anther Dehiscence. —This is the breaking open of the anther to 
discharge the pollen. 

When fully ripe the dividing partition between each pair of spor¬ 
angia usually becomes thinned, flattened and ultimately breaks down, 
while the elastic and resistant endothecium, steadily pushing against 
the more delicate and now shrinking exothecium causes rupture 
where endothecium is absent, namely along opposite lines of the 
anther wall. Thus arises a line of anther dehiscence called longi¬ 
tudinal anther dehiscence on either side of the anther sacs. In the 
division Solanece of the family Solanacece which includes Belladonna, 
in some of the Ericaceae as Rhododendron and Azalea , etc., the 
anthers dehisce by small apical pores from which the pollen is shed. 
This kind of dehiscence is called apical porous dehiscence. Again, 
in Lauracece and Berheridacece , the anthers dehisce by recurved valves. 
This is called valvular dehiscence. 

Moreover, in Malvacece the originally longitudinal anther is divided 
internally by a partition. It gradually swings on the filament so 
that eventually the anther is transverse and the partition becomes 


192 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


absorbed, thus becoming a one-celled anther with transverse dehis¬ 
cence in its mature state. 

Development of the Anther. —Each stamen originates as a knob¬ 
like swelling from the receptacle between the petals and carpels. 
This swelling represents mainly future soral (anther) tissue. The 
filament develops later, When such a young sorus or anther is cut 



Fig. 95.—Cross-section of a mature lily anther. The pairs of pollen chambers 
unite to form two pollen sacs, filled with pollen grains; s, modified epidermal cells 
at line of splitting. ( From, a Text-book of Botany by Coulter, Barnes, and Cowles. 
Copyright by the American Book Company, Publishers.) 

across and examined microscopically, it shows a mass of nearly simi¬ 
lar cellular tissue in which the first observable changes are the 
following: 

The surface dermatogen cells become somewhat flattened and regu¬ 
lar to form the future epidermis or exothecium of the anther. About 
the same time some cells, by more rapid division in the middle 
of the anther substance, give rise to the elements of the vascular 
bundle in the connective. Then., along four longitudinal tracts, 
rows of cells remain undivided or only divide slowly as they increase 
in size and around them cells divide and redivide to form the future 
endothecial and covering tissue to the four sporangia. Next, the 
four sporangial tracts of undivided cells cut off from their outer 
surfaces a layer of enveloping cells, the tapetum. This consists of 
richly protoplasmic cells that form a covering to the spore mother-cells 





PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


193 


within. Each spore mother-cell undergoes division and redivision 
into four spore daughter-cells, at the same time that reduction in the 
chromatin substance takes place in these cells. Thus originate 
tetrads (groups of four) of spore daughter-cells inside spore mother-cell 
wall. These continue to enlarge, press against the mother-cell wall 
which becomes converted into mucilage and each of the tetrad cells 
becomes in time a mature microspore or pollen grain. 

During this time the entire anther is growing in size, the cells of 
the endothecium in one or more layers becomes thickened by lignin 
deposits to form a mechanical endothecium ; the tapetum gradually 
breaks down and appears only, at length, as an irregular layer around 
the maturing pollen cells. When the anther is finally ripe the parti¬ 
tion between each pair of microsporangia becomes narrowed, flat¬ 
tened and ruptured and thus numerous microspores or pollen grains 
fill two cavities, one on either side of the connective. The micro¬ 
spores or pollen grains at first show only a thin clear cellulose layer, 
but from this, by a differentiation of the exterior film, the exospore 
layer becomes cut off. This becomes cuticular. The cellulose inner 
layer {endospore), remains unaltered. In the development of the 
exopore, one to several deficiencies are usually left in it through 
which the endospore may protrude later as the rudiment of the 
pollen tube. 

Attachment of Anther. —The attachment of the anther to the fila¬ 
ment may be in one of several ways, as follows: 

Innate , attached at its base to the apex of the filament. 

Adnate , adherent throughout its length. 

Versatile, when the anther is attached near its center to the top 
of the filament, so that it swings freely. The adnate and versatile 
are introrse when they face inward, extrorse when they face outward. 

Pollen. —The pollen grains or microspores vary in form for differ¬ 
ent species and varieties and while they are averagely constant for 
these, nevertheless many exceptions have been recorded. The fol¬ 
lowing are some of the commoner forms: 

Four Spore Daughter-cells, hanging together as in the Cat Tail 
(Typha ) forming a pollen grain. 

Elongated, simple pollen grains as in Zostera. 

Dumb-bell-shaped, as the pollen of the Pines. 


13 


194 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 



Fig. 96. — Various forms of pollen grains. Pollen from Typha latifolia (A), 
Zea mays (J5), Ambrosia elatior (C), Lilium philadelphicum ( D ), P inus (£), 
Ranunculus bulbosus ( F ), Carpinus caroliniana ( G), Althcea rosea ( H ), Oenothera 
biennis, ( 7 ). All highly magnified. Drawing by Hogstad. 




PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


195 


Triangular, as in the (Enotheras. 

Echinate, as in the Malvaceae. 

Spherical, as in Geranium, Cinnamon and Sassafras. 

Lens-shaped, as in the Lily. 

Spinose, as in the Composite. 

Barrel-shaped, as in Polygala. 

Under the microscope the immature pollen grain generally consists 
of two membranes, an outer firmer one called the exospore, which 
may be variously marked and which possesses deficiencies in the 
form of “pores” or “clefts,” and an inner delicate cellulose mem¬ 
brane called the endospore, which surrounds a protoplasmic interior 
in which are imbedded a nucleus, oil droplets and frequently starch 
or protein. 

Pollinia. —These are agglutinated pollen masses which are com¬ 
mon to the Orchidacece and Asclepiadacece. 

The pollen of many plants, notably certain species of Composites, 
Graminece and Rosacece, has been shown to be responsible for “Hay 
Fever.” At the present time serums, extracts and vaccines are 
manufactured from pollen to be used in the treatment of this disease. 

The Gynoecium or Pistil System. —This is the female system of 
organs of flowering plants. It may consist of one or more modified 
leaves called carpels. Each carpel or megasporophyll is a female 
organ of reproduction. In the Spruce, Pine, etc., it consists of an 
open leaf or scale which bears but does not enclose the ovules. In 
angiosperms it forms a closed sac which envelops and protects the 
ovules, and when complete is composed of three parts, the ovary or 
hollow portion at the base enclosing the ovules or rudimentary seeds, 
the stigma' or apical portion which receives the pollen grains, and 
the style, or connective which unites these two. The last is non- 
essential and when wanting the stigma is called sessile. The carpel 
clearly shows its relations to the leaf, though greatly changed in 
form. The lower portion of a leaf, when folded lengthwise with the 
margins incurved, represents the ovary\ the infolded surface upon 
which the ovules are borne is the placenta, a prolongation of the 
tip of the leaf, the stigma, and the narrow intermediate portion, the 
style. A leaf thus transformed into an ovule-hearing organ is called 
a carpel. The carpels of the Columbine and Pea are made up of 


196 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


single carpels. In the latter the young peas occupy a double row 
along one of the sutures (seams) of the pod. This portion corre¬ 
sponds to the infolded edge of the leaf, and the pod splits open along 
this line, called the ventral suture. 

Dehiscence, or the natural opening of the carpel to let free the 
contained seeds, takes place also along the line which corresponds 
to the mid-rib of the leaf, the dorsal suture. 

The gynoecium or Pistil may consist of a number of separate 
carpels, as in the buttercup or Nymphaea flowers, when it is said to 
be apocarpous, or the carpels composing it may be united together 
to form a single structure, as in the flowers of Belladonna and Orange, 
when it is called syncarpous. 

If the pistil is composed of one carpel, it is called mono car pellary; 
if two carpels enter into its formation, it is said to be dicarpellary; 
if three; tricar pellary; if many, poly carp ellary . 

Compound Pistils are composed of carpels which have united to 
form them, and therefore their ovaries will usually have just as 
many cells (locules) as carpels. When each simple ovary has its 
placenta, or seed-bearing tissue, at the inner angle, the resulting 
compound ovary has as many axile or central placentae as there are 
carpels, but all more or less consolidated into one. The partitions 
are called dissepiments and form part of the walls of the ovary. If, 
however, the carpels are joined by their edges, like the petals of a 
gamopetalous corolla, there will be but one cell, and the placenta 
will be parietal, or on the wall of the compound ovary. 

The ovules or megasori are transformed buds, destined to become 
seeds in the mature fruit. Their number varies from one to hun¬ 
dreds. In position, they are erect, growing upward from the base 
of the ovary, as in the Composite; ascending, turning upward from 
the side of the ovary or cell; pendulous, like the last except that 
they turn downward; horizontal, when directed straight outward; 
suspended, hanging perpendicularly from the top of the ovary. 

In Gymnosperms the ovules are naked; in Angiosperms they are 
enclosed in a seed vessel. 

A complete angiospermous seed ovule which has not undergone 
maturation consists of a nucellus or body; two coats, the outer and 
inner integuments ; and a funiculus, or stalk. Within the nucellus 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 197 

is found the embryo sac or megaspore containing protoplasm and a 
nucleus. (See Fig. 97A). 

The coats do not completely envelop the nucellus, but an opening 
at the apex, called the foramen or micropyle admits the pollen tube. 
The vascular plexus near the point where the coats are attached to 
each other and to the nucellus is called the chalaza. The hilum 
marks the point where the funiculus is joined to the ovule, and if 
attached to the ovule through a part of its length, the adherent 
portion is called the raphe. The shape of the ovule may be ortho- 
tropous, or straight; campylotropous , bent or curved; amphitropous, 
partly inverted; and anatropous, inverted. The last two forms are 
most common. A campylotropous ovule is one whose body is bent 
so that the hilum and micropyle are approximated. 

The Placenta. —The placenta is the nutritive tissue connecting 
the ovules with the wall of the ovary. The various types of pla¬ 
centa arrangement (placentation) are gouped according to their 
relative complexity as follows: (1) Basilar, (2) Sutural, (3) Parietal, 
(4) Central, (5) Free Central. 

Basilar placentation is well illustrated in the Polygonacece (Smart 
Weed, Rhubarb, etc.) in Piper and Juglans. Here, at the apex of the 
axis and in the center of the ovarian base, arises a single ovule from 
a small area of placental tissue. 

Sutural placentation is seen in the Leguminosce (Pea, Bean, etc.). 
Here each carpel has prolonged along its fused edges two cord-like 
placental twigs, from which start the funiculi or ovule stalks. 

Parietal placentation is seen in Gloxinia , Gesneria, Pap aver, etc. 
Here we find two or more carpels joined and placental tissue running 
up along edges of the fused carpels bearing the ovules. 

Central or axile placentation is seen in Campanulacece (Lobelia), 
where the two, three, or more carpels have folded inward until they 
meet in the center and in the process have carried the originally 
parietal placenta with them. This then may form a central swelling 
bearing the ovules over the surface. 

Free Central placentation occurs perfectly in the Primulacece, 
Plantaginacece and a few other families. In this the carpels simply 
cover over or roof in a central placental pillar around which the 
ovules are scattered. 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


198 

Style. —The style is the portion of the carpel which connects the 
stigma with the ovary. It is usually thread-like but may also be con¬ 
siderably thickened. It frequently divides into branches in its upper 
part. These are called style arms. As many style arms as carpels 
may be present. In the one-carpelled pistil of some Leguminosce, the 
usually bent-up style is the tapered prolongation of a single flower. 
Again, in the apocarpous carpels of many flowers of the Ranuncul- 
acece, each carpel bears a short to long stylar prolongation. When 
the carpels, however, are syncarpous the common styles tend to 
become more or less fused but usually show lobes, clefts or style 
arms at their extremities that indicate the number of carpels in 
each case which form the gynoecium. 

In some plants remarkable variations from the typical stylar 
development may occur. Thus, in Viola, the end of the style is a 
swollen knob on the under surface of which is a concave stigma with 
a flap or peg. In the genus Canna the style is an elongate blade-like 
flattened body with a sub-terminal stigma. In forms of the Cam- 
panulacece the style is closely covered with so-called collecting hairs. 
On these the anthers deposit their pollen at an early period before 
the flowers have opened. Later, when the flowers open, insects 
remove the pollen after which the collecting hairs wither. The stig¬ 
mas then curl apart to expose their viscid stigmatic hairs. In this 
instance there are two distinct and at separate times functioning 
hairs on the stylar prolongation, viz.: ( a ) collecting stylar hairs, 
functioning for pollen collection and distribution; and ( b ) stigmatic 
hairs for pollen reception from another flower. In Vinca the style 
swells near its extremity into a broad circular stigma and then is 
prolonged into a short column bearing a tuft of hairs that prevents 
the entrance of insect thieves into the flower. In the genus Iris 
the common style breaks up at the insertion of the perianth into 
three wide petaloid style arms. Each of these bifurcates at its ex¬ 
tremity. On the lower or outer face of this is a transverse flap that 
bears the stigmatic papillae. In Physostigma the style enlarges at 
its extremity into a flap-like swelling which bears a narrow stigmatic 
surface. Finally in Sarracenia the single style of the five-carpelled 
pistil enlarges above into a huge umbrella-like portion with five 
radiating ribs. At the extremity of each bifid end of each rib is a 
minute peg-like stigmatic surface. 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


199 


The Stigma. —This is usually a viscid papillose surface of greater or 
less expanse functioning for pollen reception. In wind-pollinated 
flowers such as the grasses, the stigmas are the numerous feathery 
hairs which cover the ends of the styles and intended to catch flying 
pollen grains. In animal-pollinated flowers, the stigmas are usually 
small restricted knobs, lines or depressions. The stigmatic papillae 
vary in size in different plants and even may vary on different 
individuals of the same species. Thus in the long styles of Primula , 
the stigmatic papillae are elongated columnar hair-like structures, 
whereas in the short styles of short-styled flowers the papillae are 
small knob-like cellular swellings. 

POLLINATION 

Pollination is the transfer of pollen from anther to stigma and 
the consequent germination thereon. It is a necessary step to 
fertilization. 

When the pollen is transferred to the stigma of its own flower the 
process is called Close or Self-pollination ; if to a stigma of another 
flower, Cross-pollination. If fertilization follows, these processes are 
termed respectively, Close or Self-fertilization and Cross-fertilization. 
Close-fertilization means in time ruination to the race and happily is 
prevented in many cases by (a) the stamens and pistils standing in 
extraordinary relation to each other, ( b ) by the anthers and pistils 
maturing at different times, ( c ) by the pollen in many cases germin¬ 
ating better on the stigma of another flower than its own. 

The agents which are responsible for cross-pollination are the 
wind, insects, water currents, small animals, and man. 

Wind-pollinated, flowering plants are called Anemophilous ; their 
pollen is dry and powdery, flowers inconspicuous and inodorous, as 
in the Pines, Wheat, Walnut, Hop, etc. 

Insect-pollinated plants are called Entomophilous. These, being 
dependent upon the visits of insects for fertilization, possess bril¬ 
liantly colored corollas, have fragrant odors, and secrete nectar, a 
sweet liquid very attractive to insects, which are adapted to this work 
through the possession of a pollen-carrying apparatus. Example: 
Orchids. 


200 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Plants pollinated through the agency of water currents are known as 
Hydrophilous. To this class belong such plants as live under water 
and which produce flowers at or near the surface of the same. Exam¬ 
ple: Sparganium. 

Animal-pollinated plants are called Zodphilous. Some plants like 
the Nasturtium and Honeysuckle are pollinated by humming birds. 

Before the pollen grain has been deposited upon the stigma and 
during its germination thereon, a series of events affecting both the 
pollen grain and the embryo sac occur which result in the ultimate 
formation of the male and female gametophytes. 

Maturation of the Pollen Grain and Formation of the Male 
Gametophyte. —The substance of the microspore (pollen grain) 
divides into two cells, the mother and tube cells of the future male 
gametophyte. The nucleus of the mother-cell divides to form two 
sperm nuclei. Within the tube cell is found a tube nucleus em¬ 
bedded in protoplasm. Upon germinating the partition disappears 
and the thin endospore, carrying within it the protoplasm in which 
are embedded the tube nucleus and two sperm nuclei, penetrates 
through a deficiency of the exospore. The contents of the pollen 
grain at this stage is called the male gametophyte. 

Maturation of the Embryo Sac and Formation of the Female 
Gametophyte. —The nucleus of the megaspore or embryo sac under¬ 
goes division until eight daughter-nuclei are produced which are 
separated into the following groups: 

(a) Three of these nuclei occupy a position at the apex, the lower 
nucleus of the group being the egg or ovum, the other two nuclei 
being the synergids or assisting nuclei. 

( b ) At the opposite end of the sac are three nuclei known as the 
antipodals which apparently have no special function. 

( c ) The two remaining nuclei {polar nuclei) form a group lying 
near the center of the embryo sac which unite to form a single 
endosperm nucleus from which, after fertilization, the endosperm or 
nourishing material is derived. This stage of the embryo sac con¬ 
stitutes the female gametophyte. 

Fertilization in Angiosperms. —After the pollen grain reaches the 
stigma, the viscid moisture of the stigma excites the outgrowth of the 
male gametophyte which bursts through the coats of the pollen 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


201 


grain forming a pollen tube. The pollen tube, carrying within its 
walls two sperm nuclei and one tube nucleus, penetrates through the 
loose cells of the style until it reaches the micropyleof the ovule, then 
piercing the nucellus, it enters the embryo sac. The tip of the tube 
breaks and one of the sperm nuclei unites with the egg to form the 
oospore. The oospore develops at once into an embryo or plantlet, 



Fig. 97.—A, Immature angiospermous ovule; B, same, after embryo-sac ( e.s). 
has matured to form the female gametophyte; nucellus ( nuc); outer integument 
(o. int ); inner integument ( i. int); embryo sac (e.s.); micropyle ( mic); chalaza 
(ch); funiculus (f); synergids (s); ovum ( o); polar nuclei ( p); antipodals (a); C, 
fertilized and matured angiospermous ovule (seed). Note that the nucellus 
(nuc) has been pushed out by the encroachment of the embryo sac, in which 
endosperm has formed by the fusion of the two polar nuclei with the second 
sperm nucleus from the pollen tube which has later divided to form numerous 
nuclei scattered about in the protoplasm of the embryo sac and accumulated 
protoplasm and laid down walls, within which nourishment was stored; embryo 
(em) from fertilized ovum; testa (t) from outer integument; tegmen (te) from 
maturation of inner integument; micropyle (mic); hilum or scar (h), after funicu¬ 
lus became detached. 


which lies passive until the seed undergoes germination. The other 
sperm nucleus unites with the previously fused polar nuclei to form 
the endosperm nucleus which soon undergoes rapid division into a 
large number of nuclei that become scattered about through the pro¬ 
toplasm of the embryo sac. These accumulate protoplasm about 
them, cells walls are laid down, endosperm resulting. 















202 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


THE FRUIT 

The fruit consists of the matured pistil (carpel or carpels) and 
contents, or ovarian portion thereof, but may include other organs 
of the flower which frequently are adnate to and ripen with it. 
Thus in the Apples, Pears and Quinces, the receptacle becomes thick 
and succulent, surrounds the carpels during the ripening process and 
forms the edible portion of these fruits. In Dandelion, Arnica, and 
many other members of the Composite, the modified calyx or pappus 
adheres to the ovary during its maturation into the fruit and renders 
the fruit buoyant. In Gaultheria the calyx becomes fleshy, sur¬ 
rounds the ovary, reddens, and forms the edible part of the fruit. In 
Physalis the calyx enlarges considerably and encloses the ovary in an 
inflated colored bladder. Involucres frequently persist around and 
mature with the fruits. These may be membranous as in Anthemis, 
Matricaria and other Composites, leathery and prickly as in the Chest¬ 
nuts, scaly woody cups (cupules) as in the Oaks, or foliaceous cups as 
in the Filberts. Occasionally, as in the Fig, Osage Orange, Mul¬ 
berry, etc., the fruit may consist of the ripened flower cluster or 
inflorescence. 


Fruit Structure 

The Pericarp, or seed vessel, is the ripened wall of the ovary, and in 
general the structure of the fruit wall resembles that of the ovary, but 
undergoes numerous modifications in the course of development. 

The number of cells of the ovary may increase or decrease, the 
external surface may change from soft and hairy in the flower to hard, 
and become covered with sharp, stiff prickles, as in the Datura 
Stramonium or Jamestown weed. Transformations in consistence 
may take place and the texture of the wall of the ovary may become 
hard and bony as in the Filbert, leathery, as the rind of the Orange, 
or assume the forms seen in the Gourd, Peach, Grape, etc. 

Frequently the pericarp consists for the most part of other ele¬ 
ments than the ripened ovarian wall and is then termed a pseudocarp 
or anthocarp. The pericarp consists of three layers of different tex¬ 
ture, viz.: epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp. The epicarp is the 
outer layer. The mesocarp the middle, and the endocarp the inner 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


203 


layer. When the mesocarp is fleshy, as in the Peach, it is called the 
sarcocarp. 

When the endocarp within the sarcocarp is hard, forming a shell or 
stone, this is termed a putamen. 

Sutures. The ventral suture is a line formed by the coherent 
edges of a carpellary leaf. The dorsal suture is the mid-rib of the 
carpel. Parietal sutures are lines or furrows frequently visible on the 
walls of fruits, formed by the ripening of a compound ovary. They 
occur between its dorsal sutures and indicate the places of union 
between adjacent septa or of two parietal placentae. 

Valves. These are the parts into which the mature fruit separates 
to permit the escape of the seeds. Depending upon the number of 
these the fruit is said to be univalved , bivalved, trivalved, etc. 



Fig. 98.—Diagrams illustrating three forms of valvular dehiscence. A, Locu- 
licidal dehiscence showing each carpel split along its midrib or dorsal suture, 
the dissepiments remaining intact; B, septicidal dehiscence, in which splitting 
took place along the partitions; C, septifragal dehiscence, in which the valves 
broke away from the partitions. 


Dehiscence.—This is the opening of the pericarp to allow the 
seeds to escape. 

Fruits are either Dehiscent or Indehiscent according as they open to 
discharge their seeds spontaneously when ripe (dehiscent), or decay, 
thus freeing the seeds, or retain their seeds, the embryo piercing 
the pericarp in germination (- indehiscent ). Dehiscent fruits open reg¬ 
ularly, or normally, when the pericarp splits vertically through the 
whole or a part of its length, along sutures or lines of coalescence of 
contiguous carpels. Legumes usually dehisce by both sutures. 
Irregular or abnormal dehiscence has no reference to normal sutures, 
as where it is transverse or circumscissile, extending around the cap- 


204 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


sule either entirely or forming a hinged lid, as in Hyoscyamus, or 
detached. 

Dehiscence is called porous or apical when the seeds escape through 
pores at the apex, as in the Poppy; valvular, when valve-like orifices 
form in the wall of the capsule. Valvular dehiscence is septicidal, 
when the constituent carpels of a pericarp become disjoined, and 
then open along their ventral suture. Example: Colchicum; loculi- 
cidal, dehiscence into loculi, or cells, in which each component carpel 
splits down its dorsal suture, and the dissepiments remain intact. 
Example: Cardamon; septifragal dehiscence, a breaking away of the 
valves from the septa or partitions. Example: Orchids (Fig. 98). 

Classification of Fruits (according to structure).— Simple fruits 
result from the ripening of a single pistil in a flower. 

Aggregate fruits are the product of all the carpel ripenings in one 
flower, the cluster of carpels being crowded on the ripened receptacle 
forming one mass, as in the Raspberry, Blackberry, and Strawberry. 

Multiple fruits are those which are the product of the ripening 
of a flower cluster instead of a single flower. 

Simple and Compound fruits are either Dry or Fleshy. The first 
may be divided into Dehiscent, those which split open when ripe; 
and Indehiscent, those which do not. 

Simple Fruits: 


Dry 


Succulent 


I. Capsular (dehiscing). 

II. Schizocarpic (splitting). 

III. Achenial (indehiscent). 

IV. Baccate (berries). 

V. Drupaceous (stone fruits). 


The capsular fruits include all of those, whether formed of one 
or more carpels, which burst open to let their seeds escape. 

Schizocarpic or splitting fruits are those in which each carpel or 
each half carpel (in Labiatae) splits asunder from its neighbor and 
then falls to the ground. The split portion is one-seeded. 

Achenial fruits are dry, one-celled, one-seeded and indehiscent 
at the time of final ripening. 

Baccate fruits are such in which the endocarp always and the 
mesocarp usually becomes succulent and so the seeds lie in the pulp 
formed by the endocarp or endocarp and mesocarp combined. 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


205 


Drupaceous fruits are those in which the endocarp is always 
fibrous or stony in consistence, while the mesocarp is more or less 
succulent. The endocarp may become cuticularized as in the 
Apples. The mesocarp may form stone cells lying in the midst of 



Fig. 99.—Types of capsular fruits. 1, Pod of Aconite; 2, Capsule of Colchi- 
cum showing septicidal dehiscence; 3, capsule of poppy, having porous dehis¬ 
cence; 4, pyxis of Henbane55, dehiscing regma of Geranium; 6, siliqua of Celan¬ 
dine showing valves opening from below upward; 7, silicule of Cochlearia; 8, 
egume of Pea. 

soft parenchyma cells as in Pears; it may become hardened and 
thickened by lignin deposits to form fibers as in the Cocoanut, or 
it may become swollen and soft-succulent as in Peaches, Cherries, etc. 

I. Capsular Fruits. —These may be simple, when composed of one 
carpel as the follicle and legume, or compound, when composed of 
two or more carpels as the capsule, pyxis, regma, siliqua or silicule 



























206 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


The Follicle or pod is a dry, simple capsular fruit formed of a 
single carpel which dehisces by one suture. This is usually the 
ventral suture as in Aconite, Staphisagria, Larkspur and some other 
Ranunculacece, but may be the dorsal suture as in Magnolia, 
Fig. 99 (i). 

A Legume is a dry simple capsular fruit formed of a single carpel 
and dehiscent by both ventral and dorsal sutures. Examples: Peas, 
Beans, etc. The legume is typical of most Leguminosce, Fig. 99 (8). 

A Capsule is a fruit formed of two or more carpels which dehisce 
longitudinally or by apical teeth or valves. Examples: Cardamon, 
Poppy, Iris, etc., Fig. 99 (2 and 3). 

A Pyxis or Pyxidium is a capsular fruit formed of two or more 
carpels that dehisce transversely. Examples: Hyoscyamus, Portu- 
laca. The upper portion forms a lid which fits upon the lower pot¬ 
like portion, Fig. 99 (4). 

A Regma is a capsular fruit of two or more carpels that first splits 
into separate parts and then each of these dehisces. This type of 
fruit is typical of Hura crepitans (Sandbox), Pelargonium and 
Geranium, Fig. 99 (5). 

A Siliqua is a long slender one or two-celled capsule, often with a 
spurious membranous septum (when two-celled) and two persistent 
parietal plafcentae, the valves opening from below upward. Ex¬ 
amples: Chelidonium and Wallflower, Fig. 99 (6). 

A Silicule is a short siliqua in which the length is never much 
greater than the breadth. Example: Cochlearia. Fig. 99 (7). 

II. Schizocarpic Fruits. —A Carcerulus or Nutlet is the typical 
fruit of the Labiatae but is also seen in the Borraginaceae. The ovary 
that has become four-celled at the time of flowering matures into 
four little pieces which split asunder lengthwise. Each split part 
is composed of one-half of a ripened carpel, Fig. 100 (2). 

A Cremocarp is the characteristic splitting fruit of the 
Umbellifer^e family. It consists of two inferior akenes or 
mericarps separated from each other by a forked stalk called a 
carpophore. These mericarps usually cling to the forks of the 
carpophore for a time after the cremocarp splits, but sooner or 
later fall, Fig. 100 (1). 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


207 


A Samara is a winged splitting fruit. It may be one-carpelled 
as in the Elm, Ash, Tulip Poplar and Wafer Ash or two-carpelled 
,as in the Maples, Fig. 100 (3 and 4). 

A Lomentum or Loment is a splitting fruit that splits transversely 
into one-seeded portions. Seen in Cruciferce, in Entada scandens , 
Cdthartocarpus Fistula , Desmodium , etc. of Leguminosce , Fig. 100 (5). 




Fig. ioo. —Schizocarpic fruits, i, Cremocarp of Fennel, composed of two 
mericarps (m) and a split carpophore (c); 2, carcerulus of the Bugle; 3, one-car¬ 
pelled samara of the Ash; 4, double samara of the maple; 5, loment of purging 
cassia, a portion of the pericarp being removed to show chambers, each containing 
a single seed. , 


III. Achenial Fruits (all indehiscent).—The Akene is a dry one- 
chambered, indehiscent fruit, in which the pericarp is firm and may 
or may not be united with the seed, the style remaining in many 
cases as an agent of dissemination, Fig. 101 (1). The latter may 
be long and feathery as in Clematis or be hooked. Examples of 
akenes: Fruits of the Compositce , Anemone , etc. The Hip of the 















208 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Roses consists of a number of akenes in a ripened concave 
receptacle. 

The Utricle is like the akene, except that the enveloping calyx is % 
lodse and bladder-like. Example: Chenopodium, Fig. ioi (3). 

A Caryopsis or Grain is similar to an akene but differs from it by 
the pericarp being always fused with the seed coat. This fruit is 




Fig. ioi. —Achenial fruits. 1, Akene of Pulsatilla cut vertically, showing 
adherent feathery style ( st), pericarp (p), testa (t ), endosperm ( e ), hypocotyl ( h ) 
and cotyledons (cot) the last two structures making up the embryo; 2, caryopsis 
of wheat showing beard of hairs above and position of embryo of seed below; 
3, utricle of Chenopodium cut vertically to show calyx (c), pericarp ( p ) and seed 
(s) regions; 4, nut of an oak consisting of a glans (g) and cupule ( cu ). 


more likely than any other to be mistaken for a seed. Examples: 
Wheat, Corn, Barley, Oats and other members of the Graminece, 
Fig. 101 (2). 

A Nut or Gians is a one-celled, one-seeded fruit with a leathery 
or stony pericarp. Examples: Oaks, Beeches, Chestnuts, Alders 
and Palms, Fig. 101 (4). 

IV. Baccate Fruits (Succulent fruits in which the endocarp is 
always succulent and the mesocarp sometimes).—The Berry is a 
small fleshy fruit with a thin membranous epicarp and a succulent 
interior in which the seeds are imbedded. Examples: Capsicum, 
Tomato, Belladonna, Grape, Currant, etc. 






PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


209 


An Uva is a berry from a superior ovary. Examples: Bella¬ 
donna, Egg-plant, Tomato, Fig. 102 (1). 

A Bacca is a berry from an inferior ovary. Examples: Goose¬ 
berry, Honeysuckle, Currant. 

The Pepo or Gourd Fruit is a baccate fruit of large size which has 
developed from an inferior ovary. It is fleshy internally and has a 
tough or very hard rind. Examples: Fruits of the Cucurbitacea 
and the Banana, Fig. 102 (2). 



2 


3 


Pig. 102. —Baccate fruits. 1, berry (uva) of Belladonna with adherent 
calyx; 2, Pumpkin, cut transversely illustrating a pepo fruit; ( h ), a locule; 3, 
hesperidium fruit of the Orange cut transversely showing epicarp (e), mesocarp 
(m), endocarp ( en), pulp ( p ), and seed (s). 

The Hesperidium is a large thick-skinned succulent fruit with 
seeds embedded in the pulp but from a superior ovary. Examples: 
Orange, Grape-fruit, Lemon, etc. In each of these there is to be 
noted a glandular leathery epicarp, a sub-leathery mesocarp and 
an endocarp in the form of separate carpels. From the endocarp 
hairs grow inward into the carpellary cavities and become filled with 
succulence. The seeds lie amid the hair cells, Fig. 102 (3). 

V. Drupaceous Fruits (Succulent fruits in which the mesocarp 
is more or less succulent, but the endocarp leathery or stony).-— 
A Drupe is a one-celled, one-seeded drupaceous fruit such as the 
fruit of the Plum, Peach, Prune, Sabal, Rhus, Piper, Cherry, etc., 
whose endocarp or putamen is composed wholly of stone cells or 
stone cells and sclerenchyma fibers, Fig. 103 (1). 

The Pome is a fleshy drupaceous fruit, two or more celled with 
fibrous or stony endocarp, the chief bulk of which consists of the 


14 





210 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


adherent torus. Quince, Apple and Pear are examples. The car¬ 
pels constitute the core, and the fleshy part is developed from the 
torus, Fig. 103 (2). 



Fig. 103. —1. Drupe of cocoanut cut vertically, showing epicarp ( e ), mesocarp 
( m ), stony endocarp ( d ) seed coat (5), endosperm {end), and embryo sac cavity 
(e.s.) which in the mature seed contains a nutritive fluid. 2. Pome of an apple 
cut vertically to show core composed of 5 ripened carpels and flesh of matured 
torus. 3, Eaetrio of raspberry. 4, Same, cut vertically to show arrangement of 
the little drupes on fleshy receptacle. 



Fig. 104. —Multiple fruits. 1, Syconium of Fig cut vertically to show hollowed 
out receptacle ( r ) of ripened flower cluster; 2, strobile of the hop; 3, galbalus of 
Juniper. 


Aggregate Fruits.— An Etaerio consists of a collection of little 
drupes on a torus of a single flower. Examples: Raspberry, Black¬ 
berry, etc., Fig. 103 (3 and 4). 








PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


211 


Multiple Fruits. —The Syconium is a multiple fruit consisting of a 
succulent hollow torus enclosed within which are akene-like bodies, 
products of many flowers. Example: Fig. 104 (1). 

The Sorosis is represented by the Mulberry, Osage Orange, etc., 
the grains of which are not the ovaries of a single flower, as in the 
Blackberry, but belong to as many separate flowers. In the Pine¬ 
apple all the parts are blended into a fleshy, juicy, seedless mass, and 
the plant is prop agated by cuttings. 

The Strobile or Cone is a scaly, multiple fruit consisting of a 
scale-bearing axis, each scale enclosing one or more seeds. The 
name is applied to the fruit of the Hop, Fig. 104 (2), and also to 
the fruit of the Coniferce in which the naked seeds are borne on 
the upper surface of the woody scales. 

A Galbalus is a more or less globular multiple fruit formed of 
fleshy connate scales, as in Juniper, Fig. 104 (3). 

Histology of a Capsule, Vanilla. —The Vanilla fruit is a one-celled 
capsule formed by the union of three carpellary leaves and dehiscing 
by two unequal longitudinal valves. 

Microscopic Appearance of a Transverse Section. —Passing from 
periphery toward the center, the following structures present 
themselves: 

1. Epicarp, consisting of epidermis and hypodermis. The epider¬ 
mis consists of a layer of thick-walled epidermal cells whose outer 
walls show the presence of a thin yellow cuticle. Stomata are pres¬ 
ent in this tissue. The epidermal cells contain protoplasm and 
brownish bodies. Some also contain small prisms of calcium oxalate 
and a few, vanillin crystals. The hypodermis is composed of ofie to 
several layers of collenchymatic cells with dark-colored contents. 
Its cells are somewhat larger than those of the epidermis and thicker- 
walled. 

2. Mesocarp, a broad region of somewhat loosely arranged large, 
thin-walled parenchyma cells becoming smaller in the inner zone of 
this region. Most of these cells contain brownish contents but some 
possess long raphides of calcium oxalate. If the section be mounted 
in phloroglucin solution (5 per cent.) and a drop of strong sulphuric 
acid is added, a carmine-red color will be observed showing the pres¬ 
ence of vanillin in this region. Several closed collateral bundles will 
be seen coursing through the mesocarp. 


212 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


3. Endocarp, an irregular line of inner epidermal cells which is 
differentiated into two regions, the interplacental region and the 
placental region. The interplacental (inner) epidermis shows its 
cells elongated into numerous thin-walled glandular hairs which con¬ 
tain an abundance of balsam; the placental region covers the six 
bifid placenta which extend into the cavity of the capsule. Its 
(inner) epidermis is composed of mucilaginous cells. 

4. Seeds. —These are minute blackish bodies attached to the pla¬ 
cental twigs of the placentae. Some of them may have been torn off 
in cutting the section. 



Fig. 105.—Photomicrograph of a transverse section of a mericarp of Foeni- 
culum vulgare, showing epicarp (A), mesocarp (B), endocarp (F), vitta (C), endo¬ 
sperm of seed ( D ), carpophore (G) and fibro-vascular bundle in primary rib (E). 
(Highly magnified.) 


Histology of a Typical Mericarp, Fceniculum. —This five-angled 
fruit, in transverse section, shows a concave commissural and convex 
dorsal surface. Passing from the surfaces toward the center we note: 

1. Epicarp , or outer covering tissue, composed of colorless epider¬ 
mal cells and small stomata. The epidermal cells in cross-section 
appear rectangular, while in surface view they are both polygonal 
and rectangular. 

2. Mesocarp , of several layers of thin-walled colorless isodia- 
metric cells, beneath which are two to several additional layers of 
thicker-walled cells with brownish walls. Through the angles or 
rib portions of the mesocarp extend the fibro-vascular bundles. 




PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


213 


Between each fibro-vascular bundle and the tip of each rib will be 
found a zone of collenchyma cells. In the mesocarp between each 
two ribs on the dorsal side occurs a single vitta or oil tube which is 
lined with a layer of brownish polygonal cells. These vittae contain 
the official oil of fennel. Two vittae generally occur in the meso¬ 
carp of the commissural side although four are reported to have 
been found in this region of some fennel fruits. 

3. Endocarp , a narrow layer of cells, transversely elongated, except 
over the regions of bundles where they may be seen elongated in 
several directions. 

4. Spermoderm or Seed Coat , consisting of a layer of somewhat 
broadened epidermal cells attached to the endocarp and several 
layers of collapsed cells which are only well defined in the region of 
the raphe. 

5. Endosperm , a central mass of more or less polygonal cells con¬ 
taining aleurone grains and oil globules. Each aleurone grain con¬ 
tains a rosette aggregate of calcium oxalate and one or two globoids. 

6. Embryo, embedded in the endosperm of the upper region of the 
seed. 


THE SEED 

A seed is a matured megasorus (ovule) borne by the sporophyte of 
a spermatophytic plant, enclosing a megaspore (embryo sac) within 
which a fertilized egg of the succeeding gametophyte generation has 
segmented to form a new sporophyte plant. The purpose of the 
seed is to insure the continuation and distribution of the species. 
Like the ovule, it consists of a nucellus or kernel enclosed by integu¬ 
ments, and the descriptive terms used are the same. The seed 
coats, corresponding to those of the ovule, are one or two in number. 
If but one seed coat is present it is termed the spermoderm. If two 
are present, the outer one is called the testa , and the inner one the 
tegmen. The testa, or outer seed shell, differs greatly in form and 
texture. If thick and hard, it is crustaceous; if smooth and glossy, 
it is polished; if roughened, it may be pitted, furrowed, hairy, reticu¬ 
late, etc. 

The testa may often present outgrowths or seed appendages whose 
functions are to make the seeds buoyant, whereby they may be dis- 


214 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


seminated by wind currents. Examples of these are seen in the 
Milkweed, which has a tuft of hairs at one end of the seed called a 
Coma, and in the official Strophanthus, which has a long bristle-like 
appendage attached to one end of the seed and called an awn. The 
wart-like appendage at the hilum or micropyle, as in Castor Oil 
Seed, is called the Caruncle. 

The tegmen or inner coat surrounds the nucellus closely and is 
generally soft and delicate. 

A third integument, or accessory seed covering outside of the testa, 
is occasionally present and is called the Aril. Example: Euonymus 
(succulent). 

When such an integument arises from the dilatation of the micro¬ 
pyle of the seed, as in the Nutmeg, it is known as an Arillode. 

The Nucellus or Kernel consists of tissue containing albumen, when 
this substance is present, and the embryo. Albumen is the name 
given the nutritive matter stored in the seed. The funiculus or seed 
stalk is usually absent in the official seeds. The scar left by its 
separation is called the hilum. When the funiculus is continued 
along the outer seed coat, it is called the raphe. 

MODE OF FORMATION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF ALBUMEN 

If the egg-cell within the embryo sac segments and grows into the 
embryo and, stretching, fills up the cavity without food material 
laid down around it, it happens that the nutritive material lingers in 
the cells of the nucellus, pressing around the embryo. This is called 
Perispermic albumen. Seen in the Polygonacece. 

In by far the greater number of Angiosperms, the endosperm nu¬ 
cleus, after double fertilization, divides and redivides, giving rise to 
numerous nuclei imbedded in the protoplasm of the embryo sac, out¬ 
side of the developing embryo. Gathering protoplasm about them¬ 
selves and laying down cell walls they form the endosperm tissue 
outside of the embryo. Into this tissue food is passed constituting 
the Endospermic albumen. 

In the Marantacece, Piperacece, etc., nutritive material is passed 
into the nucellar cells causing them to swell up, while to one side a 
small patch of endosperm tissue accommodates a moderate amount 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 215 

of nourishing substance, thus resulting in the formation of abundant 
perisperm and a small reduced endosperm. 

Exalbuminous seeds are those in which the albumen is stored in the 
embryo during the growth of the seed. Such seeds show the fleshy 
embryo taking up all or nearly all the room within the seed coat. 
Examples: Physostigma, Amygdala, etc. 

Albuminous seeds are those in which the nourishment is not stored 
in the embryo until germination takes place. Such seeds show a 
larger nourishing tissue region and a smaller embryo region. Exam¬ 
ples: Nux Vomica, Myristica, Linum, etc. 

Gross Structure of a Monocotyl Seed {With fruit wall attached), 
Indian Corn. —The ripened seed of Indian Corn is surrounded by a 
thin, tough pericarp which is firmly adherent to and inseparable from 
the Spermoderm or seed coat. Because of this fact, while in reality 
a fruit called a caryopsis or grain, this structure is sometimes erro¬ 
neously termed a seed. 

The mature grain of most varieties of Indian Corn is flattened and 
somewhat triangular in outline, the summit being broad and the 
base comparatively narrow. The summit is indented and often 
marked by a small point which represents a vestige of the style. 
The basal or “tip” region marks the part of the grain which was in¬ 
serted into the cob. Upon it maybe found papery chaff, represent¬ 
ing parts of the pistillate spikelets. The groove noted on the 
broader surface indicates the position of the embryo. 

Histology of the Indian Corn Seed {With fruit wall attached). —If a 
longitudinal section be cut through the lesser diameter of a soaked 
grain, the following histologic characteristics will be observed: 

1. The Pericarp or ripened ovarian wall which, alike with all other 
grains, adheres firmly to the wall of the seed forming a portion of 
the skin of the grain. The pericarp comprises an outer epicarp of 
elongated cells with thin cuticle, a mesocarp of thicker walled cells 
without, becoming thinner within, and a layer of tube cells. 

2. The Spermoderm or seed coat, a single layer of delicate elon¬ 
gated cells. 

3. The Perisperm, another layer directly underneath the Spermo¬ 
derm, difficult to distinguish without special treatment, and repre¬ 
senting the ripened nucellar tissue of the ovule. 


2 l6 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


4. The Endosperm or nourishing tissue, consisting of: (a) The 
Aleurone Layer, for the most part a single row of cells, containing 
aleurone grains. Some of the cells may be seen to be divided by 
tangential partitions. ( b ) Starch Parenchyma, consisting of two 
regions: an outer horny zone composed of cells containing for the 
most part polygonal starch grains and oil droplets; and an inner 
mealy zone of cells with mostly rounded starch grains. 

5. The Embryo , consisting of a single shield-shaped cotyledon 
adjoining the endosperm, the plumule or rudimentary bud at the 
end of the caulicle or rudimentary stem and the radicle or rudimen¬ 
tary root, with its tip covered by a root cap. Continuous with the 
root cap is a root sheath or coleorhiza. The cotyledon or seed leaf 
consists of two parts: the scutellum which lies next to the endosperm, 
and is an organ of absorption; and the sheating portion which sur¬ 
rounds and protects the rest of the embryo. 

The embryo contains oil and proteids, but no starch. 

If a similar longitudinal section of a soaked grain be mounted in 
dilute iodine solution, the contents of the aleurone cells will be col¬ 
ored yellow indicating their proteid nature, while the starch grains 
will take on a blue to violet coloration. The endosperm will be 
observed taking up most of the room within the seed coat. The con¬ 
tents of its cells are not baled out to the embryo until after germina¬ 
tion begins. Indian Corn is therefore an albuminous seed. 

A MONOCOTYL SEEDLING 

Germination. —When any viable seed is planted in suitable soil, 
and furnished with oxygen and water and a certain degree of heat, 
germination takes place. In the presence of moisture, etc., the seed 
swells, the ferments present within the cells of the endosper n then 
change the insoluble proteid, starch, and oil to soluble materials, 
which, in the ckse of Indian Corn, are absorbed in solution by the 
scutellum which bales this nourishment out to other parts of the 
growing embryo, there to be used in part in constructing new tissues, 
and in part to be consumed by oxidation or respiration. The process 
of respiration or breathing takes place when the plant takes in oxy¬ 
gen and gives off carbon dioxide. The oxygen oxidizes the tissues 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


217 

with an accompanying release of energy, which latter is necessary to 
life and growth. 

The combined pericarp and spermoderm bursts opposite the tip of 
the radicle, and the radicle, piercing through the cotyledonary sheath, 
protrudes. The cleft in the coat lengthens to the point opposite the 
tip of the plumule, which also protrudes after bursting through the 
cotyledonary sheath. The radicle, next, grows downward into the 
soil forming the primary root, and develops upon itself secondary or 
lateral roots, all of which give rise to root-hairs just above their root 
caps. Additional lateral roots emerge above the scutellar region 
which ere long attain the size of the first or primary root. The cau- 
licle, carrying upon its tip the plumule, elongates and forms the stem; 
the leaves of the plumule spread out and turn green to function as 
foliage leaves. The perforated cotyledonary sheath grows out sur¬ 
rounding both the root and the stem for a portion of their length. By 
this time all or nearly all of the nourishment stored in the endosperm 
has been absorbed and assimilated by the young seedling and the 
coat and scutellum, left behind, gradually decay and disappear. 
The root-hairs absorb nourishment from the soil, the green leaves 
build up carbohydrates, prop-roots make their appearance at the 
first node (joint) above ground, and the seedling grows larger. 

Gross Structure of a Dicotyl Seed, Phaseolus lunatus (Lima Bean). 
—The Lima Bean Seed shows a flattened-ovate to somewhat reni- 
form outline. Externally it exhibits a polished seed coat which is 
perforated on its basal side by a minute pore called the micropyle or 
foramen. Just below this pore will be noted the hilum or scar which 
represents the point of detachment from the funiculus ox stalk, which 
connected the seed during its growth with the wall of the fruit. 
Upon soaking the seed in water, it is possible to remove the seed coat 
or spermoderm. This done, the embryo will be exposed. The two 
fleshy cotyledons are first seen. Upon spreading these out, convex 
sides down, the rest of the embryo, consisting of a thin leafy structure 
surrounding a bud and called the plumule , the caulicle or rudimen¬ 
tary stem and in line with the latter, the radicle , or rudimentary 
root, will be seen. 

Histology of the Lima Bean Seed. —In transverse sections, the 
following microscopic structures will be evident: 


2 i8 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


1. Spermoderm of three regions, viz.: Palisade cells, Column cells, 
and Spongy Parenchyma. The palisade cell layer is composed of 
vertically elongated thick-walled cells which are covered on their 
outer faces by a clear glistening cuticle. The cells are 60 to So/x long 
and 12 to 20/x wide. The column cells, found forming a layer 
directly beneath the palisade zone, are hour-glass-shaped and 25 to 
35 » long by 14 to 35 n wide. 

The spongy parenchyma forms a zone of several layers of thin- 
walled parenchyma cells, the cells of the outer and inner layers being 
considerably .smaller than the middle layers. 

2. Embryo , the two cotyledons of which make up the greatest bulk. 
These are composed of an epidermis covering over a region of meso- 
phyll. The mesophyll is constituted of moderately thick-walled 
cells which contain ellipsoidal and kidney-shaped starch grains up 
to 65/* in length. A conspicuous branching cleft will be seen in the 
larger grains. 

In the Lima Bean, the nourishment is stored in the embryo during 
the growth of the seed. It is, therefore, exalbuminous. 


CHAPTER VIII 


TAXONOMY 

DIVISION I.—THALLOPHYTA 

Plants, the greater number of which, consist of a thallus, a body- 
undifferentiated into root, stem or leaf. The group nearest to the 
beginning of the plant kingdom presenting forms showing rudi¬ 
mentary structures which are modified through division of labor, dif¬ 
ferentiation, etc., in higher groups. 

SUBDIVISION I—PROTOPHYTA (SCHIZOPHYTA) 

A large assemblage of “fission plants” comprising the bacteria 
and blue-green algas. In the simplest types no nucleus is present, 
but as we arise in scale through the bacteria and blue-green algae, 
there is to be observed an open granular, gradually growing to a 
crescentic, chromatin mass that may be called a nucleus. A common 
method of asexual reproduction is possessed by these plants whereby 
the cell cleaves or splits into two parts, each of which then becomes 
a separate and independent organism. 

I. SCHIZOMYCETES—BACTERIA 

Bacteria are minute, unicellular, colorless, rarely weakly red or 
green colored, non-nucleate vegetable organisms destitute of chloro¬ 
phyll. They serve as agents of decay and fermentation and are 
frequently employed in industrial processes. According to the vari¬ 
ous phenomena they produce, they may be classified as follows- (a) 
Zymogens producing fermentation; ( b ) Aerogens producing gas;(c) 
Photogens producing light; ( d ) Chromogens producing color; ( e ) 
Saprogens, producing putrefaction; (/) Pathogens, producing disease. 

Physical Appearance of Bacterial Colonies and Individual Forms. 
Because of their minute size—a space the size of a pinhead may 

219 


220 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


hold eight billion of them—the student commences his study of 
bacterial growths in colonies or cultures, each kind possessing 
characteristics by which they may be distinguished and differentiated. 

The individuals in the colony, depending upon the kind of bac¬ 
teria under examination, may be globular, rod-shaped, or spiral. 
Bacteria are classed according to form into the following families 
and genera. 



Fig. 106.—Types of micrococci. ( After Williams.) 


Family I.—Coccaceae. —Cells in their free condition globular, be¬ 
coming but slightly elongated before division. Cell-division in one, 
two or three directions of space. 

A. Cells without Flagella. 

1. Division only in one direction of space forming an aggregation 
resembling a chain of beads—Streptococcus. 

2. Division in two directions of space forming an aggregation 
resembling a cluster of grapes—Staphylococcus. 



Fig. 107.—Types of bacilli. ( After Williams.) 


3. Division in three directions of space forming a package-shaped 
or cubical aggregation—Sarcina. 

B. Cells with Flagella. 

1. Division in two directions of space—Planococcus. 

2. Division in three directions of space—Planosarcina. 

Family II.—Bacteriaceae. —Cells longer than broad, generally two 
to six times, straight or only with an angular bend, never curved or 
spiral, division only at right angles to axis or rod; with or without 
flagella and endospores. 

1. Flagella and endospores absent—Bacterium. 


TAXONOMY 


221 


2. Flagella-and endospores present—Bacillus. 

Family III.—Spirillaceae. —Cells curved or spirally bent, generally 
motile through polar flagella. 

1. Cells stiff, not flexile. 

(a) Cells without flagella—Spirosoma. 

(b) Cells with one, very rarely with two polar flagella—Micro- 
spira. 

(c) Cells with a bundle of polar flagella—Spirillum. 

2. Cells flexile, spiral very close—Spirochaeta. 

Family IV.—Mycobacteriaceae. —Cells short or long cylindrical 
or clavate-cuneate in form, without a sheath surrounding the 
chains of individuals, without endospores, with true dichotomous 
branching. 



Fig. io8. —Types of spirilla. (After Williams.) 


A. In cultures possessing the characters of true bacteria. Growth 
on solid media smooth, flat, spreading. Rod with swollen ends, 
or cuneate or clavate forms—Corynebacterium. 

B. Cultures on solid media raised, folded or warty. Generally • 
short slender rods, rarely short branched. Take the tubercle stain— 
Mycobacterium. 

Family V.—Chalamydobacteriaceae. —Thread-like, composed of 
individual cells, surrounded by a sheath. Simple or with true 
branching. Ordinary vegetative growth by division in only one 
direction of space, i.e., at right angles to the longer axis. 

A. Cell contents without sulphur granules, 
i. Filaments unbranched. 

(a) Cell-division only in one direction of space, 

( b ) Cell-division in gonidial formation in three directions 
of space—Streptothrix. 

*Marine forms with cells surrounded by a very delicate 
hardly discernible sheath—Phragmidiothrix. 


222 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


**Fresh-water forms with easily discernible sheath— 
Crenothrix. 

2. Filaments branched. 

B. Cell contents with sulphur granules—Thiothrix. 

Family VI.—Beggiatoaceae. —Thread-like, without a capsule, but 
with an undulating membrane. Cell contents show sulphur granules. 

A. Threads apparently not septated, septa only faintly visible 
with iodine staining. Colorless or faintly rose-colored—Beggiatoa. 

Sporulation. —A large number of bacteria possess the power of 
developing into a resting stage by a process known as sporulation 
or spore formation. Sporulation is regarded as a method of resisting 
unfavorable environment. This is illustrated by the anthrax 
bacilli which are readily killed in twenty minutes by a io per cent, 
solution of carbolic acid, and able, when in the spore condition, to 
resist the same disinfectant for a long period in a concentration of 
50 per cent. And, while the vegetative forms show little more 
resistance against moist heat than the vegetative form of other 
bacteria, the spores will withstand the action of live steam for as long 
as ten to twelve minutes or more. 

Whenever the spores are brought into favorable condition for 
bacterial growth, as to temperature, moisture and nutrition, they 
return to the vegetative form and then are capable of multiplication 
by fission in the ordinary way. 

Reproduction. —Bacteria multiply and reproduce themselves by 
cleavage or fission. A young individual increases in size up to the 
limits of the adult form, when by simple cleavage at right angles to 
the long axis, the cell divides into two individuals. 

Morphology Due to Cleavage. —According to limitations imposed 
by cleavate directors, the cocci assume a chain appearance, or a 
grape-like appearance, or an arrangement in packets or cubes having 
three diameters. This gives rise to the 

Staphylococcus (plural, staphylococci ), from a Greek word referring 
to the shape of a bunch of grapes. 

Streptococcus (plural, streptococci ), from a Greek word meaning 
chain-shaped. 

Sarcina, package-shaped or cubical. 


TAXONOMY 


223 


Form of Cell Groups after Cleavage. —The individual bacteria 
after cleavage may separate, or cohere. The amount of cohesion, 
together with the plane of cleavage, determines the various forms 
of the cell groups. Thus, among the cocci, diplo- or double forms 
may result giving rise to distinguishing morphological character¬ 
istics. Similarly among the bacilli characteristic forms result 
as single individuals and others which form chains of various 
lengths. 

Rapidity of Growth and Multiplication. —The rapidity with which 
bacteria grow and multiply is dependent upon species and environ¬ 
ment. The rapidity of the growth is surprising. Under favorable 
conditions they may elongate and divide every twenty or thirty 
minutes. If they should continue to reproduce at this rate for 
twenty-four hours a single individual would have 17 million de¬ 
scendants. If each of these should continue to grow at the same 
rate, each would have in twenty-four hours more, 17 million off¬ 
spring, and then the numbers would develop beyond conception. 
However, such multiplication is not possible under natural or even 
artificial conditions, both on account of lack of nutritive material 
and because of the inhibition of the growth of the bacteria by their 
own products. If they did multiply at this rate in a few days there 
would be no room in the world but bacteria. 

Chemical Composition of Bacteria. —The quantitative chemical 
composition of bacteria is subject to wide variations, dependent 
upon the nutritive materials furnished them. About 80 to 85 
per cent, of the bacterial body is water; proteid substances constitute 
about 50 to 80 per cent, of the dry residue. When these are ex¬ 
tracted, there remain fats, in some cases wax, in some bacteria 
traces of cellulose appear, and the remainder consists of 1 to 2 per 
cent. ash. 

The proteids consist partly of nucleo-proteids, globulins, and 
protein substances differing materially from ordinary proteids. 
Toxic substances known as endotoxins to distinguish them from 
bacterial poisons secreted by certain bacteria during the process of 
growth, also occur. 


224 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Some Bacteria Producing Diseases in Man or the 
Lower Animals 

Organism Disease 

Staphylococcus pyogenes aureus. Boils, abscesses, carbuncles 

Streptococcus erysipelatis.;. Erysipelas 

Micrococcus meningitidis. Cerebrospinal meningitis , 

Micrococcus gonorrhoeae. Gonorrhoea 

Micrococcus melitensis. Malta feyer 

Micrococcus catarrhalis. Catarrh 

Bacillus anthracis. Anthrax 

Bacterium diphtheria©.. Diphtheria 

Bacillus typhosus. Typhoid fever 

Bacterium influenzae. Influenza 

Bacillus tetani. Tetanus 

Bacillus leprae. Leprosy 

Bacillus chauvei. “Blackleg” of cattle 

Bacillus aerogenes capsulatus. Emphysematous gangrene 

Bacterium tuberculosis. Tuberculosis 

Bacterium mallei. Glanders 

Streptococcus pneumoniae (Diplococcus pneumoniae) Pneumonia (croupous or 

fibrinous pneumonia) 

Spirillum cholerae asiaticae. Cholera 

Spirillum obermeieri. Relapsing fever 

Streptothrix (Actinomyces) bovis. Actinomycosis in cattle 

Some Bacteria Producing Diseases in Plants 

x\ctinomyces Myricarum. Tubercles upon and lesions 

within Myrica and Comp- 
tonia 

Bacterium tumefaciens. Crown gall 

Bacterium savastanoi.. . Olive knot 

Bacillus amylovorus. Pear blight 

Pseudomonas juglandis. Walnut blight 

Bacillus Solanacearum. Wilt of Solanaceae 

Bacillus tracheiphilus. Wilt of Cucurbits 

Pseudomonas Stewarti. Wilt of Sweet Corn 


Mounting and Staining of Bacteria. —The mounting and staining 
of bacteria may be accomplished as follows: 

1. Take the square or round cover slip, which has been previously 
cleaned, out of the alcohol pot. Dry it between filter paper. 

2. Hold it in the bacteriolgic forceps, which is so constructed that 
a spring holds the cover slip firmly while an enlargement of the wire 





























TAXONOMY 225 

handle permits the placing of the forceps on the table while the cul¬ 
ture material is obtained. 

3. Place several drops of distilled water on the cover slip and add a 
loop full of the organism secured from the pure culture in a test tube 
as follows: 

4. Remove the cotton plug by the third and fourth fingers of the 
left hand. 

5. Hold the open test tube between the thumb and forefinger of the 
left hand. 

6. By means of a previously flamed platinum needle, remove a 
little of the culture from the surface of the culture media. 

7. Replace the cotton plug. 

8. Add the culture media to the drop of distilled water on the 
cover slip and distribute this material by stirring. 

9. Evaporate the water on the cover slip to dryness by holding it 
some distance above the Bunsen flame and slowly enough to prevent 
connection circles being formed by the material affixed to the cover. 

10. Pass the cover glass three times through the Bunsen flame. 

11. Apply the stain, which should remain long enough to stain the 
objects. 

12. Wash off the stain with distilled water. 

13. Dry the cover glass above the flame. 

14. Apply a drop of balsam, turn the cover slip over and drop it on 
to the center of a glass slide previously provided and cleaned for this 
purpose. 

Gram’s Method.—This is a method of differential bleaching after 
a stain. The cover glass preparations or sections are passed from 
absolute alcohol into Ehrlich’s anilin gentian violet, where they 
remain one to three minutes, except tubercle bacilli preparations 
which remain commonly twelve to twenty-four hours. They are 
then placed for one to three minutes (occasionally five minutes) in 
iodine potassium iodide water (iodine crystals 1, potass, iodide 2, 
water 300), with or without washing lightly in alcohol. In this 
they remain one to three minutes. They are then placed in absolute 
alcohol until sufficiently bleached, after which they are cleared in 
clove oil and mounted in balsam. 

Certain organisms, when stained by this method give up the stain 


226 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


and are called “Gram negative; ” others retain the color and are 
called “Gram positive.” Examples of the latter are B. diphtheriae, 
Bacillus anthracis, and Bacillus tetani. 

Stains.—One of the most useful bacteriologic stains is ZiehVs 
Carbol Fuchsin, prepared as follows: 

Fuchsin (basic), i. 

Absolute Alcohol, i. 

Carbolic Acid (5 per cent, aqueous solution), 100. 

The fuchsin should be dissolved first in the alcohol and then the 
two fluids mixed. 

Ehrlich’s Anilin Water Gentian Violet.—Anilin Oil Water, 75 
parts. 

Sat. Sol. Gentian Violet'in Alcohol, 25 parts. 

Anilin oil water is made by adding 2 mils anilin to 98 mils dis¬ 
tilled water; shake violently. Filter through filter paper several 


times. 

Loffler’s Methylene-blue.— 

Sat. sol. Methylene-blue in Alcohol.30 mils 

Sol. KOH in distilled water (1:10,000).100 mils 

Mix the solutions. 


Stain for “Acid Proof” Bacteria Including B. Tuberculosis.— 

1. Flood the cover glass with Ziebl’s carbol fuchsin and boil over 
the flame for thirty seconds. 

2. Wash and decolorize with a 2 per cent, solution of HC 1 in 
80 to 95 per cent, alcohol until the thinner portions of the film 
show no red color. 

3. Wash in water. 

4. Counter stain for contrast with Loffler’s Methylene-blue. 

5. Wash and examine. 

Van Ermengem’s Flagella Stain.—1. Mordant: 

Osmic acid (2 per cent, aqueous solution).... 50 

Tannin (10 to 25 per cent, in water). ..... 100 

Four drops of glacial acetic acid may be added to this. 

2. Silver Bath: 

Dissolve 0.25 to 0.5 per cent, nitrate of silver in distilled water in a 
clean bottle. 





TAXONOMY 


227 


3. Reducing and Strengthening Bath: 


Gallic acid. 5 

Tannin. 3 

Fused sodium acetate. 10 

Distilled water. 350 


The flamed cover glass is first covered with the mordant for one- 
half hour, or if in a thermostat at 5o°C. for- five to ten minutes. 
The mordant is then carefully removed by thorough washing in 
water, alcohol and water. The coyer (film side up) is now put into 
the silver bath (a few mils in a clean beaker or watch glass) for a 
few Seconds, during which time it is gently agitated. Without 
rinsing it is next put into a few mils of the reducing solution and 
gently agitated until the fluid begins to blacken. It is then washed 
in water and examined. If not stained deeply enough the cover is 
returned to the silver bath. It is finally dried and mounted in 
balsam. All the dishes must be scrupulously clean. The fluids 
must not be contaminated by the fingers nor by dipping iron or 


steel instruments into them. 

Broca’s Differential Stain.—- 

Loffler’s Methylene Blue. 80 mils 

ZiehPs Carbol Fuchsin. 10 mils 

Mix the solutions. 


This stain differentiates between dead and living bacteria. Dead 
bacteria take on a red coloration and living bacteria a blue color. 

2. Cyanophyce^e 

Plants which are sometimes termed blue-green algce. They con¬ 
tain chlorophyll, a green pigment, and phycocyanin, a blue pigment, 
a combination giving a blue-green aspect to the plants.of this group. 
Found everywhere in fresh and salt water and also on damp logs, 
rocks, bark of trees, stone walls, etc. Examples: Oscillatoria , Glce- 
ocapsa, and Nostoc. 

Gloeocapsa.—This blue-green alga is commonly found on old, 
damp flower pots in greenhouses and on damp rocks and walls 








228 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


near springs, where it forms slimy masses. Under the microscope 
a mount of Glceocapsa will be seen to consist of isolated protoplasts 
and groups of protoplasts, surrounded by concentric gelatinous 


Fig. 109.— A, B, C, D, E, Gloeocapsa; F, Os^illatoria showing a dead cell (d) 
which marks a place of separation into segments. (A). Gloeocapsa, parent cell 
composed of central protoplast containing scattered chromatin granules, sur¬ 
rounded by cell wall and 3 mucliaginous envelopes; ( B ), parent cell is shown 
elongated, the protoplast in process of division to form two daughter protoplasts; 
(C), daughter protoplasts, each surrounded by two gelatinous envelopes and both 
within the original parent envelopes; ( D) the daughter protoplasts shown in C 
have just divided to form granddaughter protoplasts which have later separated, 
each forming envelopes of its own but all four encircled by the parent envelope. 

envelopes. Each protoplast consists of a protoplasmic mass 
which contains blue and green pigments. No definitely organized 
nucleus is apparent but chromatin in the form of granules-is scat- 




































TAXONOMY 


229 



tered through the protoplasm. The whole is surrounded by a cell 
wall which undergoes mucilaginous modification producing thus 
the soft gelatinous envelopes which encircle parent-, daughter-, 
grand-daughter- and even great-grand¬ 
daughter-cells. 

Oscillatoria. —Oscillatoria is a blue-green 
filamentous organism found abundantly on 
the surface of the mud of drains and ditches 
as well as in ponds where the water is foul. 

The filament is slender and composed of 
compactly arranged disc-shaped cells wh'ch 
are all alike, excepting the terminal ones 
which appear rounded off. The filaments 
tend to be agglomerated in thick felts or 
gelatinous masses and each possesses pecu¬ 
liar oscillating and forward movements. 

At the time of reproduction the filament 
breaks up transversely into short segments, 
each of which, by fission occurring among 
its cells, grows into a new filament. 

Nostoc. —rNostoc occurs on the damp 
ground bordering streams or in slow bodies 
of water as greenish or brownish tough gela¬ 
tinous masses varying in size from a pea 
to a hen’s egg. When one of these masses 
is dissected and examined microscopically, 
it is seen to contain, imbedded in a gela¬ 
tinous matrix, numerous serpentine fila¬ 
ments, composed of spherical or elliptical 
cells loosely attached to each other in 
chain-like fashion. Most of the cells are of 
the blue-green vegetative kind but there 
occur at intervals larger cells, often devoid Fig II0 — Nostoc. ( h ), a 
of protoplasm which are termed heterocysts. heterocyst. 

Frequently the filaments break apart on 

either side of the heterocyst, setting free segments of cells which 


grow into new filaments. 




230 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


SUBDIVISION II.—MYXOMYCETES, OR SLIME MOLDS 

Terrestrial or aquatic organisms, frequently classified as belonging 
to the animal kingdom and found commonly on decaying wood, 
leaves, or humous soil in forests. Their vegetative body consists 
of a naked, multinucleated mass of protoplasm called the plasmo- 
dium, which has a creeping and rolling amoeboid motion, putting out 
and retracting regions of its body called pseudopodia. The size of 
the plasmodium varies from a ten-cent piece to several square feet 
of surface. It is net-like, the net being of irregular dimensions. 
Like the amoeba the outer portion of the plasmodium is clear and 



Pig. hi. — A, B, Comatricha nigra. A, Sporangium, natural size; B, capilli- 
tium, 20/1; C, E, Stemonitis fusca; C, sporangium, natural size; D and E, capilli- 
tia, s/i, 20/1; F, H, Enerthema papillatum , F, unripe; G, mature sporangium, 
io/i: H, capillitium, 20/1. (C, D, after nature. A, F, G, H, after Rostajinski; 

B, E, after de Bary in Die natiirlichen PJlanzenfamilien I. 1, p. 26.) 

watery and known as the ectoplasm , the inner portion is granular 
and called the endoplasm. Like the amoeba and unlike other plants, 
this slimy body engulfs solid food by means of its pseudopodia in¬ 
stead of admitting it in solution. It is extremely sensitive to light 
being negatively heliotropic, i.e., turning away from the sun’s rays. 
At the time of reproduction, the plasmodium creeps to the surface. 
The whole plasmodium then forms one or more fructifications. 
These fructifications vary from cushion-like masses (cethallia) 




TAXONOMY 


231 


to more elevated bodies in which the net-like structure of the plas- 
modium is preserved ( plastnodiocarps ) to stalked sporangia (spore 
cases). All of the fructifications, however, produce spores. Dur¬ 
ing wet weather amoeboid protoplasts {swarm spores ) escape from 
the spores, each developing a single cilium and moving actively 
about. In time the cilia disappear and these swarm spores coalesce 
in smaller then larger groups to form a plasmodium. 


SUBDIVISION III .—ALGJE 

Low forms of thallophytes of terrestrial and aquatic distribution 
consisting for the most part of single cells or rows of single cells 
joined end to end to form filaments. The higher forms, however, 
possess structures, which might be compared to stems and leaves of 
higher plants although more rudimentary in structure. They 
contain chlorophyll or some other pigment, and so can use the C 0 2 
and H 2 0 in the same manner as higher plants, e.g., in assimilating 
and providing for their Own nutrition. Archegonia are absent in 
this group. 

Class I.— Chlorophyce^e, the Green Alg,e 

Green algae are unicellular (sometimes motile), filamentous, 
colonial, or sheet-like water plants characterized by the presence of 
solitary, or numerous chloroplasts in the cells, which compose the 
thallus. These chloroplasts vary considerably in form, being in 
some cases spiral bands, in other star-shaped, in others like a napkin 
ring, and in others granular. In the chloroplasts of most green 
algae are pyrenoids, which consist of a central crystalline portion 
of protein (aleurone-like) surrounded by a starchy envelope of 
variable magnitude. These are called starch centers and the starch 
is frequently in the form of rounded, or angular grains. The nutri¬ 
tion of these algae is autotrophic. There is a definite nucleus present, 
but in the coenocytic forms the nuclei may be many within the 
confines of the cell wall. The motile cells have one to many cilia, 
as likewise some of the reproductive cells. Reproduction is by cell 
division, the formation of zoospores (motile cells), by zygospores 


232 PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 

produced by conjugation, by egg cell and sperm cell union (oospores) 
oogamous reproduction. Green algae live mostly in fresh water. 
Some live in brackish water and a few in the sea. Some are asso¬ 
ciated with fungi to form lichens. 

1. Order Protococcales or One-celled Green Algae. —This order 
contains nearly all of the one-celled green algae excepting the diatoms 
and desmids. 

Family Pleurococcaceae. — PleiCrococcus vulgaris is a one-celled 
green alga, millions of which, living together in colonial fashion, con¬ 
stitute the so-called “green stain” that is common on the north 
sides of tree trunks, stone walls and fences. Each organism con¬ 
sists of a protoplast surrounded by a cell wall of cellulose. The 
protoplast contains a chromatophore, cytoplasm and nucleus. 
Reproduction takes place by the protoplast dividing into two equal 
parts and laying down a cell wall forming two daughter-protoplasts. 
These may again divide to form four granddaughter-protoplasts. 
Still another division may occur as a result of which eight great- 
granddaughter-protoplasts are formed wtich frequently adhere to 
one another forming colonies. 

2. Order Volvocales. —This order comprises free-swimming 
aquatic forms whose vegetative cells are bi-ciliated, green, more or 
less spherical or compressed. Some of the organisms like Sphcerella 
and Chlamydomonas consist of single cells bearing a pair of cilia, 
while others like Pandorina , Eudorina and Volvox show varying de¬ 
grees of colony formation. Reproduction sexual or asexual. 

Volvox globator, a typical representative of this order, is found in 
fresh water pools as a tiny, hollow, spherical, green colony about 
}io to }io of an inch in diameter. When examined under the 
microscope (Fig. 112), it is found to consist of hundreds of green, 
more or less spherical cells, united by fine strands of cytoplasm 
(protoplasmic bridges), the whole being*enveloped by a gelatinous 
sheath. The peripheral cells are provided with cilia, in order that 
the colony may rotate and roll through the water. In a young 
colony, all of the cells are alike, each consisting of a mucilaginous- 
like cell-wall enclosing cytoplasm, a nucleus, a chloroplast and often 
a red pigment spot. In a mature colony, however, throughout the 
greater part of its existence, two kinds of cells may be discerned: 


TAXONOMY 


233 



Fig. 112 .—Volvox globator. Mature colony in center (1); sexual cells (2a); 
endochrome of primary cell has resolved itself into a cluster of secondary cells 
(ia, a 2 and 5); antherozoids (6, 7); bundle separated into component antherozoids 
in cavity of primary cell (ia 3 ); breaking of wall of primary cell showing escape 
of antherozoids into cavity of volvox sphere (io 4 ); egg cells (1 b, b); flask shaped 
germ (egg) cells with large vacuoles in protoplasm (1 b 2 , b 2 ); globular egg cell 
prepared to pass into cavity of volvox sphere (b 3 ); antherozoids collected about 
egg cell (3); oospore (4). ( Carpenter .) 





234 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


small, sterile, vegetative cells that do not divide and from io to 12 
larger vegetative ones that divide to form new colonies. The latter 
slip inward below the level of the smaller cells and through repeated 
divisions form a number of ciliated cells jointed by cytoplasmic 
threads, which in reality is a minature colony. This then escapes to 
the exterior through the rupturing of the gelatinous wall of the old 
colony. 

During autumn of the year, certain of the ordinary cells undergo 
differentiation, some to form sperm cells, others, egg-cells. When 
about three times the size of the ordinary sterile cells, the sperm cells 
divide repeatedly to form a cluster of elongated secondary cells 
[Fig. 112 (1 a , a 2 and 5),] each of which contains an orange colored 
endochrome with a red corpuscle and an elongated beak, bearing a 
pair of flagella (lash-like processes). The cluster in time separates 
into motile antherozoids [Fig. 112 (6, 7)] which finally escape into 
the cavity of the volvox sphere through rupture of the investing 
wall. The flask-shaped egg cells (ib, b) increase greatly in size with¬ 
out dividing. Each shows vacuoles, then becomes filled with a 
dark green pigment, becomes spherical and acquires a gelatinous 
envelope. It then passes into the cavity of the sphere where it is 
surrounded by numerous antherozoids (3) and is finally fertilized. 

The product of this fertilization is an oospore (4) which ere long 
becomes covered with an internal smooth membrane and a thicker 
external spinose coat. The chlorophyll within then disappears and 
starch and a reddish- or orange-colored oil make their appearance. 
Up to 40 of these oospores have been observed in a single volvox 
sphere. Not long after the formation of these oospores the whole 
parent colony breaks up and the oospores fall to the bottom of the 
pool to pass the winter season. As early as February each oospore 
germinates to form another volvox colony, which repeats the life 
cycle described. 

3. Order Confervales. —In this order are included a variety of 
green filamentous and membranous forms some of which show sexual 
reproduction. 

Family Ulothricaceae. —Ulothrix zonala, a typical representative 
of this family, is a filamentous organism found growing on stones 
around ponds, on rocks along the shores of lakes, in slow-moving 


TAXONOMY 


2 35 


streams, etc. Each filament is unbranched and consists of a row of 
short cells, one of the terminal cells, called the rhizoid cell, being 
elongated and serving as an attachment structure. Each cell con¬ 
sists of a cell wall of cellulose enclosing cytoplasm, a nucleus and a 
wide band-shaped green chromatophore, more or less cylindrical in 
shape. The chromatophore lies next to the cell wall and contains 
pyrenoids or starch-forming centers. The filament grows in length 
by the fission of its various component cells. After attaining a 
certain size it reproduces either asexually or sexually. Asexual 
reproduction takes place by certain cells becoming altered in their 
protoplasmic contents, through division, to form rounded or pear- 
shaped zoospores. Each zoospore contains a red pigment spot and 



Fig. i 13.— Vaucheria terrestris. anth, antheridium (empty); o, oogonia. {Gager.) 

bears four cilia (protoplasmic outgrowths). The zoospores escape 
into the water by lateral openings in the walls of cells containing 
them. They swim rapidly about, propelled by their cilia, and ere 
long attach themselves to various objects and grow into Ulotbrix 
filaments. The sexual method of reproduction is effected through 
the production of many gametes , in cells of the filament, which re¬ 
semble the zoospores in shape but differ from them in being smaller 
and possessing but two cilia. These escape into the water, and, 
after swimming about for a short time come together in pairs and 
fuse with one another. The product of the fusion of each pair of 
these like gametes is termed a zygospore. The zygospore swims 
about but finally comes to rest, remaining quiescent for a consider¬ 
able length of time. It then enlarges and its protoplasmic content 



236 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


divides to form several zoospores, which, escaping from the cell, 
swim about for a while and finally, attaching themselves to objects, 
grow into filamentous Ulothrix organisms. 

4. Order Conjugales. —To this order belong the desmids and 
pond scums which are distinguished from other green algae by 
presenting no motile stages in their life histories. They are all of 
fresh-water habit and reproduce by conjugation. 

Family Desmidaceae. —The desmid family includes a number of 
genera of unicellular as well as filamentous green plants that present 
a variety of shapes. Each unicellular desmid is characterized by 
being composed of two like halves frequently separated by each 
other by a constriction called the isthmus. In each half there is a 
chromatophore containing pyrenoids. The nucleus is found in the 
isthmus. Reproduction is accomplished either asexually by fission 
or sexually by conjugation. 

Family Zygnemaceae.— This is a family of pond scums including 
the well-known genera, Spirogyra and Zygnema. 

Spirogyra or Brooksilk is a filamentous organism found suspended 
or floating in masses in quiet water. Each filament when examined 
microscopically will be found to consist of more or less elongated 
cylindrical cells arranged end to end, the terminal cells having 
rounded extremities. Each cell has a cell wall of cellulose within 
which is to be found a thin film of ectoplasm. One or more spirally 
shaped chromatophores will be seen directly within this area. Each 
chromatophore contains chlorophyll and a number of pyrenoids. 
In the center of the cell the nucleus is found. Fine strands of 
protoplasm hold it in place and run out to the ectoplasm. 

Under favorable circumstances the cells of Spirogyra increase 
rather rapidly in length. Abnormally long cells are not seen, 
however, because the elongating cells speedily divide, forming two 
daughter-cells. Under the best of conditions, division may occur 
every night. In this way the filaments are rapidly made longer. 
Sooner or later they break and in this way the plant multiplies, 

Spirogyra has also a process of sexual reproduction known as 
conjugation. This process occurs normally from March to June 
and July, but can be induced in the laboratory by allowing the water 
in the vessel in which it is growing to slowly evaporate. Two fila- 


TAXONOMY 


237 


ments arrange themselves side by side, and the cells lying opposite 
each other undergo internal changes so as to form gametes or sexual 
cells. Each protrudes a process or conjugation tube ; these unite 



Fig. 114 .—Spitogyra sp. A, terminal portion of vegetative filament; B, stages 
of scalariform conjugation; C, preparation for lateral conjugation; D, zygospores 
formed by lateral conjugation. {Gager.) 

and the protoplasm from one cell passes over and coalesces with that 
in the cell opposite. The result of the processes a new cell called a 
zygospore or zygote. This is set free by decay of the walls of the old 














238 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


cell and falls to the bottom of the water, there to undergo a resting 
stage until favorable conditions for growth arise. 

5. Order Diatomales.—Family Diatomaceae. —This family com¬ 
prises several thousand species of unicellular plants called Diatoms 
which are found in fresh, brackish and salt water, forming much of 
the diet of small animals. While unicellular, they frequently are 
united in colonies. They all possess chromatophores containing 



Fig. 115.—Two species of Diatoms. To left, Diatoma vulgare; a, side view of 
frustule; b, frustule undergoing division. To right, Grammatophora serpentina: 
a, front and side views of single frustule; b, b, front and end views of divided 
frustule; c, frustule about to undergo division; d, frustule completely divided. 
(After Carpenter .) 

chlorophyll but this green pigment is often obscured by the presence 
also of a brown pigment. 

The most striking peculiarity of the group is the structure of the 
enclosing cell wall. This is in the form of a siliceous case consisting 
of two valves which fit into each other like the halves of a pill box. 
The valves, which are beautifully sculptured, are similar except that 
one is slightly larger than the other so as to fit over it. Diatoms 
vary in form being either circular, linear, elliptical, cylindrical, 
rhomboidal, triangular or fan-shaped, etc. Some are borne on the 



TAXONOMY 


239 


ends of stalks, while others are held in gelatinous masses. Their 
siliceous skeleta are deposited constantly on the floor of ponds, rivers, 
lakes and seas, often in such abundance as to form Diatomaceous 
earths or Kieselguhrs (Siliceous Earths). Huge geological deposits 
of this material have been found in various parts of the world. The 
most remarkable for extent as well as for the number and beauty of 
the species contained in it is that at Richmond, Virginia. It is in 
many places 25 to 40 feet in depth and extends for many miles. 



Fig. 116.— Licmophora flabellata, a diatom with wedge-shaped frustules borne 
on the ends of stalks, producing a fan-like arrangement. ( After Carpenter.) 


Many of the diatomaceous earths are useful as absorbent and polish¬ 
ing powders. The United States Pharmacopoeia IX recognizes, 
under the name of Terra Silicea Purificata (Purified Siliceous Earth), 
a powder consisting of the frustules and fragments of diatoms which 
has been purified by boiling with diluted hydrochloric acid, washed 
and calcined. 

Diatoms exhibit two modes of reproduction, viz., fission and for¬ 
mation of an auxospore. The more common method is that of 









240 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


fission but this is peculiar for these plants. The cell-contents within 
the siliceous case separate into two distinct masses and the valves 
separate slightly from each other. As the two daughter-masses 
become more and more developed, the valves of the parent-cell are 
pushed more widely apart. Each of the two massses secretes for 
itself a new valve on the side opposite to the original valve. When 
the process is completed the girdle of the parent-diatom separates 



Fig. ii 7.—Fossil diatoms: a, a, a, Gaillonella procera and G. granuiata; b, b, 
Surirella plicata; c, Surirella craticula; d, d, d, Gaillonella ( Melosira) biseriata 
(side view); e, Gomphonema gracile; f, Cocconema fusidium; g, Tabellaria vulgaris; 
h, Pinnularia dactylus; i, Pinnularia nobilis; k, Surirella caledonica; l, Synedra 
ulna. (After Carpenter.) 

and the two daughter-diatoms thus become independent plants. 
Each of these possesses one of the parent valves and a second, 
which it has formed itself more or less parallel to the first. 

In a number of species, repeated fission results in the formation 
of succeedingly smaller and weaker individuals. This process, 
however, goes on only for a certain number of generations until 
the decrease of size has reached a limit for the species, when the 



TAXONOMY 


241 


plant is rejuvenated by the formation of an auxospore. This may 
be formed with or without the conjugation of two parent-protoplasts. 
In either case the auxospore resulting undergoes a resting stage after 
which it develops new valves. The newly formed diatom is then 
several times the size of the individual or individuals which con¬ 
tributed to its formation and is endowed with renewed vigor for 
growth and division. 

6. Order Siphonales (, Siphon Alga). —This group is characterized 
by the peculiarity that the organisms constituting it possess proto¬ 
plasm containing myriads of nuclei within a common filament or 
cell cavity not segmented by cell walls. The term coenocyte has 
been given to such structures which consist of a many-nucleated mass 
of protoplasm surrounded by a cell wall. Some of the siphon algae 
reproduce by zoospore formation, others by conjugation as well as 
zoospore formation while Vaucheria, the green felt, stands out alone 
in reproducing both by the formation of a single zoospore and 
by the production also of oogonia and antheridia with resultant 
fertilization. (Fig. 113). 

7. Order Charales ( The Stoneworts). —Family Characeae.—The 

highest group of algae, possessing forms which are differentiated into 
stems/leaves and rhizoids. 

Chara , a type of this family, is a submerged fresh-water plant 
which fastens itself to the muddy bottom of ponds, ditches and slow 
streams by means of slender filaments called rhizoids. From these 
there arises a many noded (jointed) stem which bears whorls of 
slender green leaves at its nodes. Branches are also found issuing 
from some of the nodes which duplicate in appearance the main 
stem. Reproduction is either asexual or sexual. Asexual repro¬ 
duction is accomplished by means of tuber-like bodies borne on 
submerged parts or by special branches which form rhizoids on their 
lower nodes and later become separated from the parent plant. 
Sexual reproduction is effected through the formation of oogonia 
(female sex organs) and antheridia (male sex organs). These in 
some species are borne on the same plant; in others, on different 
plants. In all cases the sexual organs are produced at the nodes. 
The oogonium develops within itself a large ovum or egg. The 
antheridium produces within its wall numerous motile sperms. 

16 


242 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Upon the maturation of the antheridium the sperms are liberated 
into the water, and, propelled by their cilia, find their way to the 
oogonia which they enter, the one best adapted fusing with the egg 
in each case and fertilizing it. The resultant cell is called the 
oospore . This undergoes a resting stage and later germinates as a 
proembryo. The proembryo consists of a simple filament and a 
long rhizoidal cell. From this proembryo, the adult stem arises as a 
side branch. 

Class II.— Phaeophyce^e, the Brown Alg,e 

Mostly marine forms showing great diversity in the form of their 
vegetative bodies. They occur for the most part in salt water be¬ 
tween the high and low tide marks. Their bodies are usually fixed 
to some support in the water by means of a holdfast, and are often 
highly differentiated both as to form and tissues. Some reach 
hundreds of feet in length as, for example, Macrocystis which grows 
in the Pacific Ocean off the coast of California. They all contain 
the brown pigment called phycophcein and the green pigment, chloro¬ 
phyll both of which are present in their chromatophores. A yel¬ 
lowish pigment called phycoxanthin has also been isolated from some 
of the species. Many of the kelps and rockweeds belonging to this 
class have long been sources of iodine, potash and sodium. 

A Filamentous Brown Alga, Ectocarpus Siliculosus.— Ecto- 
carpus occurs as tufts of branching filaments, each of which is 
many-celled. These tufts are found on eelgrass or other algae as 
well as attached to pilings of wharves in salt water. It is a striking 
illustration of the simplest form of brown algae and serves to show 
the beginning of a more complex form of reproduction than that 
observed in the forms studied up to this time. On examination of a 
filament we find it to consist of many cells joined end to end. A 
single cell has a cell wall of cellulose. Just within the cell wall 
there is a layer of protoplasm. Going toward the center we find an 
irregular chromatophore containing a brown pigment called phyco- 
phaein. From certain cells of the filament spherical sporangia (spore 
cases) arise, which are unicellular. They contain numerous biciliate 
zoospores, which escape into the sea water, move about and later 


TAXONOMY 


243 


develop into new Ectocarpus plants. Along the filaments several 
branches will be seen. Some of these have undergone division into 
several cells and these again into still smaller cells until many-celled 
chambers have resulted, which are called plurilocular sporangia. 



Fig. 118.—End of large branch of Fucus vesiculosus (natural size); e, receptacle; 
b, air bladder. 

Each cell of a plurilocular sporangium contains a gamete or sexual 
cell, which resembles in many details a zoospore. When the spo¬ 
rangium matures these gametes are discharged into the salt water. 
They fuse together in pairs and form zygospores. Each zygospore 







244 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


undergoes a resting stage and upon the advent of favorable condi¬ 
tions develops into a new Edocarpus filament. 

Fucus Vesiculosus (The Bladder Wrack). —This form, a brown 
alga, occurs as a flat thallus, which forks repeatedly, a type of 


T 



Fig. i 19. —Fucus vesiculosus. Receptacle cut transversely, c, conceptacle, 
T, cellular thickness. (Magnified.) 

branching called dichotomous. It grows near the surface of sea 
water, attached to rocks or to mussels along banks by means of a 
basal disc-shaped holdfast. In the upper branches of the thallus are 



Fig. 120 .—Fucus vesiculosus . Section of a male conceptacle lined with branched 
paraphyses which bear the antheridia (highly magnified). 

to be found air bladders which are more or less spherical and usually 
in pairs. The tips of old branches become swollen and are termed 
receptacles. They are dotted over with minute cavities called con - 


TAXONOMY 


245 


ceptacles. Within these conceptacles the antheridia , or male sexual 
organs, and the archegonia, or female sexual ogans, are produced. 
The conceptacles also contain numerous branching filaments called 



Fig. 121.— Fuchs vesiculosus. Section of a female conceptacle. o, osteole 
by which the eggs escape. The oval shaped dark objects represent oogonia in 
different stages of maturity*(highly magnified). 


paraphysesj which arise from the cells lining the cavities. The an¬ 
theridia are found as outgrowths of these paraphyses and produce 
sperms or male sexual cells. The oogonium is a large, globular, 



Fig. 122 .—Fucus vesiculosus. Fertilization. A, egg approached by bi- 
ciliated sperms; B, sperms attached to egg and surrounding it prior to fertiliza¬ 
tion (highly magnified). .... 


stalked cell and produces eight eggs, each of which is a female sexual 
cell. The eggs and sperm escape into the sea water. The eggs 
float and are surrounded by myriads of sperms. One sperm, only, 


246 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


gains an entrance, after which its nucleus fuses with that of the egg 
to form an oospore. The oospore at once develops into a new Fucus 
plant. 

Class III.— Rhodophyce^e, the Red Alg,e 

A greatly diversified group comprising the majority of .marine algae 
but represented also by some fresh-water forms. The marine red 
algae are generally found at or just beyond the low water mark. 
Their vegetative bodies vary from simple branching filaments 
through all gradations to forms differentiated into branching stems, 
holdfasts and leaves. It has been observed that many of the higher 
types are composed of numerous filaments which are arranged so 
closely and connected so intimately by protoplasmic processes 
as to resemble the tissues of plants higher up. Their color may be 
red, purple, violet, or reddish-brown or even green and is due to the 
presence of phycoerythrin, a red pigment, which is found in the 
chromatophores with but frequently masking the chlorophyll. 

Chondrus crispus and Gigartina mamillosa yield the official drug 
Cbondrus, Irish Moss or Carragheen. Both are purplish-red in 
color. Each consists of a dichotomousl/’ branched thallus the 
lower portion of which is differentiated as a stipe or stalk; the basal 
portion of which, called the holdfast, clings to the rock. The upper 
part is several times forked and its terminal segments appear notched 
or bilobed. Scattered here and there over the segments of the 
thallus will be noted sporangia which, when mature, contain tetra- 
spores. In Chondrus crispus the sporangia are elliptical and em¬ 
bedded in the thallus near its surface, whereas in Gigartina they are 
ovate and project outward from the surface of the segments. Upon 
the ripening of these structures the spores are discharged into the 
sea water. These sooner or later germinate into new Chondrus or 
Gogartina organisms. 

The dried mucilaginous substance extracted from Gracilaria 
lichenoides , Gelidium and Gloiopeltis and other species of red algae 
growing in the sea along the eastern coast of Asia constitutes the 
drug Agar, a most valuable ingredient in culture media as well as 
a laxative. 


TAXONOMY 


247 


Rhodymenia palmata or Irish Dulse is a purplish-red, flat, mem¬ 
branous, palmately cleft or dichotomous red alga growing on the 
tissues of other algae along northern shores of the Atlantic between 
the low- and high-tide marks. 

SUBDIVISION IV.—FUNGI 

This great assemblage of thallophytes is characterized by the total 
absence of chlorophyll and so its members possess no independent 
power of manufacturing food materials such as starches, sugars, etc., 
from C 0 2 and H 2 0 . Consequently they are either parasites , depend¬ 
ing for their nourishment upon other living plants or animals, called 
hosts ; or saprophytes , depending upon decaying animal or vegetable 
matter in solution. Some forms are able to live either as saprophytes 
or parasites while others are restricted to either the parasitic or 
saprophytic habit. The vegetative body of a fungus is known as a 
mycelium. It consists of interlacing and branching filaments 
called hyphce , which ramify through decaying matter or invade the 
tissues of living organisms and derive nourishment therefrom. In 
the cases of parasites, the absorbing connections which are more or 
less specialized and definite are called haustoria. In the higher forms 
the hyphae become consolidated into false tissues, and assume definite 
shapes according to the species. Of this character are the fructi¬ 
fying organs which constitute the above ground parts of Puff Balls, 
Cup Fungi, Mushrooms, etc. There are four classes of Fungi, viz.: 
Phycomycetes, Ascomycetes, Basidiomycetes and Fungi Imperfecti. 

Class I.— Phycomycetes, or Alga-like Fungi 

The Phycomycetes represent a small group of fungi showing close 
affinity with the green algae. Their mycelium is composed of coeno- 
cytic hyphae, which suggests a close relation with the Siphonales 
group of green algae. Their sexual organs are likewise similar in 
structure. Transverse septa appear upon the formation of repro¬ 
ductive organs separating these structures from the vegetative 
hyphae. 


248 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Sub-class A.—Zyygomycetes 
(Sexual apparatus shows isogamy) 

Order 1.—Mucorales, the black molds, mostly saphrophytic. Ex¬ 
amples: Mycor Mucedo, Rhizopus nigricans , Thamnidium,Pilobolus. 

Rhizopus nigricans (Mucor stolonifer), commonly known as 
“ Black Mold ” or “ Black Bread Mold,” is frequently found on bread, 
jellies, syrups, acetic pharmaceutical extracts and other substrata, 
where it forms a dense thready mycelium bearing numerous black 
tiny spore cases. The source of this mold is the spores, which are 
found in the air or water with which the attacked substratum is 



Pig. 123. —Black mold (Rhizopus nigricans). A , older plant; myc, mycelia; spx 
sporangiophore; sp, sporangium; st, stoloniferous hypha produced by A, and 
giving rise at its tip to a new plant, B. Greatly enlarged. (Gager.) 

in contact. Each of these, upon germinating, sprouts out and forms 
three kinds of hyphae, vix.: rhizoidal or submerged hyphce, spor- 
angiophores or aerial hyphce and stoloniferous hyphce. The branching 
rhizoidal hyphae penetrate the substratum and secrete a dias- 
tatic ferment that changes the water insoluble carbohydrate ma¬ 
terials into a soluble sugar which passes into solution and is absorbed 
by their walls. This, upon entering the hyphae, is converted into 
protoplasm, and so the mold increases in size. Sporangiophores 
or aerial hyphae arise vertically or obliquely from a bulged-out 
common base of the rhizoidal hyphae. Each of these when mature 








TAXONOMY 


249 


bears upon its summit a spheroidal sporangium containing numerous 
small brownish multinucleate spores called endospores. The wall 
of the sporangium is beset with asperites of calcium oxalate. Spring¬ 
ing from the base of the sporangiophores or aerial hyphae one or more 
stoloniferous hyphae traverse a portion of the surface of the sub¬ 
stratum and their tips, coming in contact with the substratum, 
swell up forming an adhesive organ or appressorium which branches 
out below into a cluster of spreading submerged hyphae and above 
into several aerial hyphae bearing sporangia. This method of 
growth proceeds until the entire surface of the nutritive medium is 
covered with a dense fluffy mycelium. 



Fig. 124. —Rhizopus nigricans. A, Young sporangium, showing columella 
within; B, older sporangium, with the wall removed, showing ripe spores covering 
the columella; C, D, views of the collapsed columella after dissemination of the 
spores. (Gager.) 

Rhizopus reproduces by two methods. The most common one is 
that of internal cell formation. In this asexual method a transverse 
wall is laid down in the sporangiophore near its tip. The terminal 
cell thus formed swells up, becoming globular in shape and its proto¬ 
plasmic contents become changed to form numerous spores within 
the wall of the sporangium or enlarged terminal cell of the sporangio¬ 
phore. The partition wall, separating the lumen of the sporangium 
from that of the sporangiophore, bulges into the sporangium as a 
dome-shaped structure, which is termed the columella. Upon the 
ripening of the spores the wall of the spore case bursts, liberating 
them. These, falling upon moist nutrient substrata, germinate and 
ultimately form new Rhizopus plants. Under certain conditions 
Rhizopus reproduces sexually. Thicker and shorter club-shaped 
hyphae arise on opposite branches of the mycelium. A partition 




250 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


wall is laid down in each of these a short distance from its tip and 
the contents of each end-cell then becomes a gamete or sexual cell. 
The apical cells of the tips of opposite hyphae then meet, a solution 
of the cell walls at the point of contact takes place and the gametes 
of both end-cells fuse to form a zygospore. This enlarges and devel¬ 
ops a highly resistant wall. After a period of rest, upon coming 
into contact with a nutrient medium, it germinates into an elongated 
sporangiophore which develops a sporangium at its summit. 



Fig. 125 .—Mucor mucedo, showing mycelium and sporangiophores. ( Palladin .) 

Mucor mucedo , another closely allied species, found growing on 
old nuts, fleshy fruits, bread and horse manure, resembles Rhizopus 
nigricans in many respects but differs from it by the formation of 
sporangiophores singly instead of in clusters. 

Thamnidium differs from Rhizopus and Mucor in the development 
of two kinds of sporangia, microsporangia and megasporangia. The 
sporangiophore produces a terminal large megasporangium possess¬ 
ing a columella and whorls of side branches which bear smaller 
microsporangia in which the columella is frequently wanting. 







TAXONOMY 


^SI 


Sub-class B. —Oomycetes 
(Sexual apparatus heterogamous) 

Order 1.—Chy tridiales. —Example: Synchytrium, a form para¬ 
sitic on seed plants and forming blister-like swellings. 

Order 2.— Saprolegniales. —Water molds which attack fishes, 
frogs, water insects, and decaying plants and animals. Example: 
Saprolegnia. 

Order 3. —Peronosporales. —Mildews, destructive parasites, liv¬ 
ing in the tissues of their hosts and effecting pathologic changes. 
Example: Albugo , the blister blight, a white rust attacking members 
of the Crucifer ce and Phytophthora,'\)xo<\uomg potato rot. 

Class II. —Ascomycetes, the Sac Fungi 

Mycelium composed of septate filaments and life history charac¬ 
terized by the appearance of a sac called an ascus in which ascospores 
are formed. The largest class of fungi. 

Order 1.— Protoascales. —Plants with asci borne free or at the 
ends of hyphae, definite fruiting bodies being absent. Each ascus 
usually develops four ascospores. To this order belong Exoascus, 
which is responsible for the abnormal development of tufted masses 
of branches on a number of trees and shrubs, and the yeasts (Sac- 
charomycetaceae) many of which produce fermentation. 

Yeasts are unicellular plants of spheroidal, oval, elliptical, pyri¬ 
form or sausage shape which reproduce by budding. They occur 
either in the wild or cultivated condition and are generally found 
capable of breaking down some form of sugar into alcohol and carbon 
dioxide. 

According to the kind or kinds of sugar fermented Hansen in 
1888 classified the yeasts as follows: 

1. Species which ferment dextrose, maltose and saccharose: 
Saccharomyces cerevisice I, S. ellipsoideus I, S. ellipsoideus II, 
S. pastorianus I, S. pastorianus II, S. pastorianus III. 

2. Species which ferment dextrose and saccharose, but not mal¬ 
tose: Saccharomyces marxianus, S. exiguus, S. saturanus, S. Ludwigii. 

3. Species which ferment dextrose, but neither saccharose nor 
maltose: Saccharomyces mali Duclauxii . 


252 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


4. Species which ferment dextrose and maltose, but not saccha¬ 
rose: Saccharomyces n. sp. obtained from the stomach of the honey¬ 
bee. 

5. Species which ferment neither maltose, dextrose nor saccharose: 
Saccharomyces anomalus var. belgicus, S. farinosus, S. hyalosporus, 
S. membranifaciens. 

The two most important yeasts in the fermentation industries are 
Saccharomyces cerevisice and Saccharomyces ellipsoideus. 

Saccharomyces cerevisice, commonly called Brewer’s Yeast, is a 
cultivated species with many strains. It is used extensively in the 
brewing and baking industries and in recent years has met with 
considerable esteem by the medical profession in the treatment of 
certain skin diseases. 

When examined under the microscope it is found to be somewhat 
spheroidal to ellipsoidal in outline, 8 to 12^4 long, and 8 to 10^ broad. 
It consists of an outer cell wall of fungous cellulose enclosing cyto¬ 
plasm and a nucleus, the latter invisible without special staining. 
The cytoplasm is differentiated into a clear outer membrane lying 
directly within the cell wall and termed the ectoplasm and an inner 
granular region, the endoplasm. In the young condition of the 
yeast cell numerous glycogen vacuoles are found scattered more or 
less uniformly throughout this region but as the cell matures these 
coalesce, until, in a very old cell, a huge glycogen vacuole may be seen 
occupying most of the interior, with the cytoplasm and nucleus 
pushed up against the cell wall and forming there a very narrow 
layer. 

Yeast plants grow in dilute saccharine solutions containing dis¬ 
solved nitrogenous substances such as beerwort, Pasteur’s solution, 
grape juice, etc. Here they are constantly wasting away and as 
constantly being built up. The question may well arise: “How do 
they obtain the material necessary for growth and repair?” The 
answer, in a general way, is not difficult. The fluid in which they 
live is a solution of sugars and of nitrogenous and other matters. 
The cell walls are readily permeable. Food substances diffuse 
through it into the cell, and by a series of changes (which, indeed, 
it is no easy matter to understand) are converted into new living 
substance. The waste products likewise diffuse readily outward. 


TAXONOMY 


253 


This method of nutrition is called saprophytic, and the yeast plant 
is said to be a saprophyte. 

A striking fact must be briefly mentioned in connection with the 
metabolism of yeast. Many organisms exercise a profound effect 
on the medium in which they live. Yeast causes a wholesale destruc¬ 
tion of sugar in the surrounding fluid. One of the decomposition 



Fig. 126.—Yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisice, the variety known as brewers’ bot¬ 
tom yeast; a, spore formation; b, elongated cells. ( After Schneider, Pharmaceu¬ 
tical Bacteriology.) 

products of sugar is alcohol. The alcohol of commerce is produced 
by the activity of this plant. 

Saccharomyces has its times of danger and stress when the cells 
perish in great numbers from cold, starvation, poisons, etc. If not 
too suddenly exposed, however, they are able to meet adverse con¬ 
ditions by eliminating most of their water, suspending physological 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


2 54 

processes, and becoming dormant. Sometimes they enter the rest¬ 
ing condition after a process of division, when each cell divides into 
four parts, each of which becomes nearly dry and is surrounded by a 
thick wall. Such cells are called ascospores , and their production 
serves both as a method of multiplying the plant and of tiding over 
adverse conditions. They can survive for a long time without 
food or water, and can endure higher temperatures than the active 
cells and almost any degree of cold. 



Fig. 127. —Saccharomyces cerevisice. The form or variety known as brewers' top 
yeast. ( Oberhefe .) 

The dried cells and spores float in the air as dust and so accomplish 
a dispersal of the organism. Doubtless most of them never again 
meet suitable environment and so sooner or later perish. But some 
will fall into favorable conditions and be able to multiply enormously 
again, and so the species is continued. 

The general method of reproduction in Saccharomyces is that of 
gemmation or budding . A small protuberance of the cell wall com- 


TAXONOMY 


255 


mences to form on the parent-cell. This grows larger and a portion 
of the cytoplasm and nuclear material pass into it. Eventually a 
daughter-bud, which may assume the size of the parent-cell, is 
formed. This generally adheres to the parent-cell and produces one 
or more granddaughter-buds which in turn may produce great-grand¬ 
daughter-buds before separation from the parent-cell takes place. 

There are two varieties of brewer’s yeast, viz.: Top yeasts and 
Bottom yeasts. Top yeasts grow on or near the surface of the liquid 



Fig. 128 .—Saccharomyces ellipsoideus. A common yeast found on grapes, 
jams, jellies, etc. Budding process is shown in many of the cells as also the vac¬ 
uoles. ( Schneider , Pharmaceutical Bacteriology.) 


and produce rapid fermentation at summer temperatures causing 
great quantities of carbon dioxide to arise to the surface and thus 
forming the froth which is characteristic of ale, stout and porter. 

Bottom yeasts grow at about 4°C. at or near the bottom of the 
vat. They are used in the manufacture of lager beers. 

Compressed yeast (Cerevisiae Fermentum Compressum) N. F. 
consists of the moist, living cells of Saccharomyces cerevisice or of other 
species of Saccharomyces, combined with a starchy or absorbent 
base. 


256 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 



Saccharomyces ellipsoideus is a wild species, several varieties of 
which are found growing on grapes especially in districts where wine 
is produced. It is termed the true wine yeast to distinguish it 
from other wild species found in grape juice, like S. apiculatus and 
S. membranifaciens which exert a deleterious effect in wine produc¬ 
tion. Its cells are ellipsoidal, 6 p. long, occurring singly or in rows 
of several generations, which are rather loosely joined. 

Order 2.—Pezizales or cup fungi. Examples: Peziza, Lachnea 
and Ascobolus. 


Fig. 129.—Saucer-shapes fruit-bodies of Peziza repanda. ( Harshberger , from 
Photo by W. H. Walmsley.) 


Parasitic or saprophytic plants, whose vegetative bodies consist of 
a mycelium ramifying through the substratum and whose above 
ground fruiting bodies are sessile or stalked, cup or saucer-shaped 
structure termed apothecia (sing, apothecium), in which a fruiting 
membrane (hymenium) lines the concave upper surface. The asci 
are usually eight-spored and separated from each other by filament¬ 
ous structures called paraphyses. (Figs. 129 and 130.) 

Order^.—Plectascales, the blue and green molds. Examples: 
Aspergillus and Penicillium. 




taxonomy' 


257 


Penicillium glaucum (green mold or mildew), a type of mildew, 
belonging to the Ascomycetes class of Fungi, forms sage-green crusts 
on bread, jellies, old boots, gloves, and various pharmaceutical 
preparations. It consists of a felt-like mass of interlaced tubular 



Fig. 130. — A, B, Lachnea scutelata. A, Habit; B, ascus with paraphysis; C, D, 
Lachnea hemisphoerica; C, habit; D, ascus with paraphysis; E, Sarcosphoera aren- 
osa habit; F, G, Sarcosphoera coronaria; F, ascus; G, habit; H, Sarcosphoera areni - 
cola ascus with paraphysis. (See Die natiirlichen Pflanzenfamilien I, 1, p. 181.) 
( Harshberger .) 

hyphae called a mycelium. From the mycelium numerous hyphae 
project into the air and bear a green powder, the spores. These 
hyphae are called aerial hyphce. Other hyphae grow down into the 
substratum and are called submerged hyphce. 

. 17 
































258 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


When a small portion of the mycelium is mounted in 10 per cent, 
alcohol and observed under the high-power objective, it will be noted 
that each hypha has a transparent wall and protoplasmic contents 
and is divided by transverse septa into a number of cells. Each 
cell contains protoplasm, which is differentiated into cytoplasm (cell 



Fig. 13 i.—T hree aerial hyphae showing the characteristic brush-like branching 
and spore formation of Penicillium glaucum. This fungus is a true saprophyte 
and is never found on living fruits or vegetables, a, Conidiophore branching 
above into secondary conidiophores; b, sterigmata; c, conidiospores. ( Schneider .) 

protoplasm) and several nuclei. In the cytoplasm will be seen 
several large clear spaces. These are vacuoles and contain water 
with nutritive substances in solution, called cell sap. Each hypha 

with its branches is clearly distinct from every other one. 

% 


\ 






















TAXONOMY 


259 


The aerial hyphae bear brush-like branches, which become con¬ 
stricted on their ends into a moniliform aggregation of rounded 
spores appearing like a row of beads. Each aerial hypha is com¬ 
posed of a vertical septate branch of the mycelium called the conidio- 
phore , branches of this, which are called secondary conidiophores , and 
chains of spores at the tips of sterigmata (cells bearing conidia) 
which are called conidia or conidiospores. The conidia form the 
loose green powder characteristic of Penicillium. 



Pig. 132 .—Penicillium Roqueforti. a, Part of a conidiophore; b, c, other types 
of branching; d, young conidiophore, just branching, e. /, conidiiferous cells; g, 
h, j, diagrams of types of fructification, k, l, m, n, geminating spores. (After 
Thom.) 

A number of species of Penicillium are useful in the arts. Peni¬ 
cillium roqueforti is the principal ripening agent of Roquefort, 
Gorgonzola and Stilton cheeses. It possesses blue-green globular 
conidia 4 to 5 /a in diameter. 

Penicillium camemberti is the principal agent in the ripening of 
Camembert cheese. It possesses ellipsoidal bluish-green conidia 
4.5 to 5.5ju in diameter. 






















26 o 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Penicillium brevicaule grows on old moist paper and has been used 
to detect the presence of arsenic, for when grown in media contain¬ 
ing this element, it develops the compound, diethylarsine. It is 
yellowish-brown in color and its conidia are rough and spiny. 



Fig. 133. — Penicillium Camemberti. a, Conidiophore with common type of 
branching with conidiospores; (6), a common less-branched form; c, d,f, diagrams 
of large fructifications; g, i, j, germinating conidiospores. ( From Bull. 82, Bureau 
of Animal Industry, also After Thom.) 

Penicillium expansum is often found on decaying apples where it 
produces brownish coremia. 

Aspergillus herbariorum. —This green mold also named Aspergillus 
glaucus and Eurotium Aspergillus glaucus is frequently found on 












TAXONOMY 


261 


fleshy drugs which have not been properly dried. It has also been 
observed on dried herbarium material, old extracts, on jams, jellies, 
tobacco, cotton-seed meal, old leather, stale black bread, etc. Like 
Penicillium its vegetative body consists of a mycelium consisting of 
aerial and submerged hyphae. It differs- from Penicillium, however, 
mainly in not possessing septated conidiophores and by the upper 
portion of the conidiophores being globular. Upon the globular 
extremity of the conidiophores are placed numerous elongated sterig- 
mata which bear chains of grayish-green conidia. These are spher¬ 
ical and prickly and range from 7 to 30/* in diameter. Under certain 



Fig. 134. —Penicillium brevicaule. a, Conidiophores and simple chains of con- 
idiospores; b, f, more complex conidial fructifications; c, two young chains of con- 
idiospores; d, e, echinulate conidiospores; g, h, j, sketches of forms and habits of 
conidial fructifications; k, germinated conidiospores. (After Thom.) 


conditions closed brownish fruit bodies called perithecia are produced. 
These arise on the surface of the substratum from spirally coiled 
hyphae and when mature possess numerous asci, each of which con¬ 
tains five to eight ellipsoidal ascospores. 

Aspergillus oryzce is a yellowish-green to brown mold which 
secretes diastase, a valuable digestive ferment, having the power of 
converting starch into sugar and dextrin. For centuries the Japa¬ 
nese have employed this species in the preparation of rice mash for 





262 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Sake, as well as in manufacture of Miso and Soja sauce. The spher¬ 
ical conidiospores are 6 to 7/x in diameter and of a yellowish-green 
color. 



Pig. 135 .—Aspergillus oryzoe associated with yeasts in the making of the Japa¬ 
nese beverage Sak6. Vegetative hyphae (a) and spore-forming hyphae(&, c, d) are 
shown. ( Schneider, Pharmaceutical Bacteriology.) 

Aspergillus fumigatus is a pathogenic species which produces a 
disease in birds, horses, cattle and even though rarely in man that is 

















TAXONOMY 


263 


called aspergillosis. The organ most prone to infection by this 
organism is the lung, although the skin, cornea, ears and other parts 






Fig. 136.— Sterigmatocystis niger (Aspergillus niger ) showing conidiophores and 
conidiospores formation with stages in germination of spores. ( Harshberger , after 
Henri Coupin.) 


are also subject to its parasitic influence. It produces short coni¬ 
diophores with sterigmata bearing long chains of rounded, colorless 










264 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


conidia 2.5 to 3^ in diameter. Harshberger 1 cites the presence of 
perithecia in this organism which are nut-brown, globular, 250 to 
350JU in diameter, and inclose oval thin-skinned asci with eight red 
lenticular ascospores each of which has a diameter of 4 to 5//. 

Aspergillus niger {Sterigmatocystis niger) develops dark brown 
mycelial masses in which are to be noted slender conidiophores bear¬ 
ing handle-shaped, branched sterigmata that cut off from their tips 
chains of rounded black-brown conidia 3.5 to 5/z in diameter. This 
fungus has been found to produce suppurative inflammation of the 



Fig. 137.—The morel, Morchellajesculenta. (Gager, from photo by W. A. Murrill.) 

external and middle portions of the human ear. It is also a cause of 
cork disease, so often imparting a disagreeable taste to bottled 
beverages. 

Order 4.— Tuberales, the truffles. Fungi whose septate mycelium 
is often connected with the roots of trees forming the structure 
known as mycorrhiza. Several species of the genus Tuber growing 
in woods of France, Germany and Italy produce tuberous subter¬ 
ranean bodies called Truffles, which are highly prized as a table 
delicacy by the inhabitants of these countries. 

Order 5.— Helvellales, the saddle fungi. Fleshy fungi entirely 
x “ Mycology and Plant Pathology” p. 147. 







TAXONOMY 


265 


saprophytic, living attached to leaf mold or growing in humous soil 
or, in a few cases, on decaying wood. The fleshy fruiting bodies 
(ascocarps) are divided into stalk {stipe) and cap ( pileus) portions. 
The external surface of the cap is covered with a layer of asci and 
paraphyses which together constitute the ascigeral layer. To this 
group belong the Morels and the Earth Tongues. 

One of the Morels, Morchella esculenta , is frequently found in 
fire-swept woods. Its fruiting body consists of a hollow, externally 
ridged stipe, bearing upon its summit a fleshy pileus whose outer 
surface is honeycombed with ridges and depressions. The depres¬ 
sions are covered with an ascigeral layer composed of asci and 
paraphyses. This species is edible. 

Order 6 .— Pyrenomycetales, the mildews and black fungi common 
as superficial parasites on various parts of plants. To the black 
fungi division of this order the Ergot fungus, Claviceps purpurea 
belongs. 

Life History of Claviceps Purpurea. —Through the agency of 
winds or insects the spores (ascospores or conidia) of this organism 
are brought to the young ovaries of the rye {Secale cereale). They 
germinate into long filaments called hyphae, which, becoming en¬ 
tangled to form a mycelium, spread over the ovary, enter it super¬ 
ficially, secrete a ferment, and cause decomposition of its tissue and 
the resultant formation of a yellow-mucous substance called honey- 
dew, which surrounds chains of moniliform reproductive bodies 
known as conidia. The honey-dew attracts certain insects which 
disseminate the disease to other heads of grain. 

The mycelial threads penetrate deeper and deeper into the ovary 
and soon form a dense tissue which gradually consumes the entire 
substance of the ovary and hardens into a purple, somewhat curved 
body called a sclerotium , or official ergot—the resting stage of the 
fungus, Claviceps. 

The ergot falls to the ground and in the following spring sprouts 
into several long stalked, globular heads called stromata or ascocarps. 
Each (fruiting) head or ascocarp has imbedded in its surface nu¬ 
merous flask-shaped invaginations called perithecia, from the bases 
of which several sacs or asci develop. Within each ascus are 
developed eight filiform spores {ascospores) which, when the ascus 


266 PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 



Fig. 138. — A, Balansia claviceps on ear of Paspalum; B-L, Claviceps purpurea; 
E, sclerotium; C, sclerotium with Sphacelia; D, cross-section of sphacelial layer; 
E, sprouting sclerotium; F, head of stroma from sclerotium; G, section of same; 
H, section of perithecium; J, ascus; K, germinating ascospore; C, conidiospores 
produced on mycelium. ( See Die naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien I, 1, p. 371.) 



























TAXONOMY 267 

ruptures, are discharged and are carried by the wind to other fields 
of grain, there to begin over a new life cycle. 

Class III.— Basidiomycetes, or Basidia Fungi 

This large class of fungi, including the smuts, rusts, mushrooms, 
gill and tooth fungi, etc., is characterized by the occurrence of a 
basidium in the life history. A basidium is the swollen end of a 
hypha consisting of one or four cells and giving rise to branches called 
sterigmata, each of which cuts off at its tip a spore, called a basidio - 
spore. In addition to the basidiospores, some forms also produce 
spores termed chlamydospores. 

Sub-class A.— Protobasidiomycetes 
(Basidium four-celled, each bearing a spore) 

Order 1. —Ustilaginales, the smuts. Destructive parasites which 
attack the flowers of various cereals, occasionally other parts of these 
plants. Example: Ustilago Maydis, the corn smut. The basidio¬ 
spores in this group are borne on promycelia. 

Ustilago Maydis (Ustilago Zese) (Corn Smut).—Corn smut is a 
destructive parasite which for a long time was supposed to be con¬ 
fined to the Indian Corn, but which now is known to occur on 
Mexican Grass. It is the only smut useful in medicine. The 
mycelium of the fungus extends through all parts of the infected 
host through the intercellular-air-spaces and produces large tumor¬ 
like masses on the ears, tassels, husk, leaves and stem. Each mass is 
filled with spores'and covered with a tightly appressed membrane 
which has a whitish appearance like German silver. The spores 
are at first a dark olive-green, but on maturity are dark brown. 
They are sub-spherical and show prominent spines. They arise 
by the division of the septate mycelium into, thick-walled echinulate 
resting spores called chlamydos pores or brand spores. These spores 
fall to the ground and pass the winter. In the spring each germi¬ 
nates into a three- or four-celled filament called a promycelium, from 
the cells of which basidiospores arise. The basidiospores develop a 
mycelium which penetrates the seedling of the host plant. 


268 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 



Order 2.— Uredinales, the rusts. Obligate parasites possessing 
a septated branched mycelium which ramifies through the inter- 


Fig. 139.—Smut boil of Ustilago zece on ear of corn, developed from one in¬ 
fected kernel. (After Jackson, F. S., Bull. 83, Del. Coll. Agric. Exper. Stal., 
December, 1908.) 

cellular-air-spaces of the host and sends haustoria into the cell 
cavities. The different stages of their life cycle are either restricted 




TAXONOMY 


269 

to one host or distributed between two or more hosts. An outline 
of the life history of the wheat rust will give an idea of the peculiari¬ 
ties of the group. 

The Wheat Rust (Puccinia Graminis). —If we examine the wheat 
plant just before harvest we will find on the stems and leaves 


1 



Fig. 140. —Germination of the chlamydospores of corn smut (Uslilago zeoe); 1, 
Various stages in germination from corn 3 days after being placed in water; 2, 
spores germinated in contact with air; 3, several days after spores were placed in 
P er cent, acetic acid, formation of infection threads, a, Spores; b, promy- 
celia; c, basidiospores; d, infection threads; e, detached pieces of mycelia. (After 
Bull. 57, JJniv. III. Agric. Exper. Slat., March, 1900.) 

some rust-red lines. The presence of the mycelium of the fungus in 
the intercellular spaces of the host does not kill the host directly 
or appear to stunt its growth, but the effect of the parasite on the 
host is seen when the grains mature. The grains are small and 
mushy, due to the fact that the nutrition of the host had been dis¬ 
turbed and the formation of starch in the grains inhibited. The 





















270 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


mycelium is localized and gives rise underneath the epidermis to 
rounded egg-shaped spores attached to it by short pedicels. The 
spores are produced in such numbers that the space beneath is too 
confined. As the long epidermal cells of grasses run longitudinally, 
the pressure of the spore masses from within causes the epidermis to 
crack and its edges become turned back. Through the resultant 
cleft the summer spores or uredospores are thrust out. These uredo- 
spores are orange-brown in color and covered with minute spines. 
The mass of them has been called a uredinium. These spores are 



Fig. i 41.—Spore forms of wheat rust, Pucainia graminis. A, Section through 
barberry leaf showing pycnia on upper surface and aecia on lower; B, two uredi- 
nio spores; C, germinating urediniospore; D, teliosorus showing several telios- 
pores; E, single two-celled teliospore; F, germinating teliospore with four-celled 
basidium and two basidiospores; G, basidiospore growing on barberry leaf. 
(Harshberger, adapted from deBary.) 

detached from the pedicels and blown by the wind to healthy plants. 
After summer is over and dry weather comes on, an examination of 
stubble in the field (blades of grass and stems of wheat left carelessly), 
these rust-red lines are replaced by brownish-black spores called 
teleutospores (teliospores). A mass of these is known as a telium.. 
The summer stage on wheat is known as Uredo linearis. 

The autumn stage on wheat is known as Puccinia graminis. 






TAXONOMY 


271 


The teleutospores are two-celled and 'have thick walls and per¬ 
sistent pedicels. They remain attached to the stubble until the 
following spring and then either one or •both cells composing them 
produce an outgrowth known as a promycelium (nothing but a 
basidium divided transversely into four cells). Each cell of the 
basidium is capable of producing a branch, at the tip of which a 
basidiospore is formed. These basidiospores are blown to the 
Barberry (Berberis) and infect the leaves of this plant. The 
mycelium runs in the intercellular-air-spaces and causes the appear¬ 
ance of a number of small depressions on the upper side of the leaf. 
These in section are a rich chocolate brown and known as sperma- 
gonia. In the center of a spermagonium are produced hyphae, which 
project out to its orifice and obstrict off minute spores called sper¬ 
matid. On the opposite side of the leaf cup-shaped depressions 
are formed, each with a limiting membrane (peridium). Within 
the cup-shaped depression thousands of spores are formed in chains 
closely packed together. These are the aecidiospores'(aeciospores). 
The cluster cup is called an yEcidium (^Ecium). These aecio- 
spores are conveyed to wheat and cause infection, thus completing 
the life cycle. It has been observed that in America the uredospores 
or summer spores may winter over and infect healthy plants, so that 
the Barberry phase is completely eliminated from the life cycle. 

Order 3.— Auriculariales. —The so-called “ear fungi” which occur 
on the bark of many plants, on wooden fences, etc., as auriculate 
growths which when young are jelly-like and brilliantly colored, 
when old, hard, grayish and considerably wrinkled. The ear¬ 
like fruiting body is known as the sporophore. Its internal surface 
is lined with a hymenium or fruiting body consisting of numerous 
four-celled basidia, each of which cuts off at its tip a basidiospore. 

Order 4.— Tremellales. —Saprophytes which live on decaying 
wood as moist, soft, quivering, gelatinous growths becoming later dry 
and horny. 

Sub-class B.— Autobasidiomycetes 

(Mostly fleshy forms characterized by one-celled basidia with generally four, 
occasionally six, eight or two sterigmata each of which cuts off a basidiospore at 
ite tip.) 


272 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Division a.—Hymenomycetes 

(Hymenium or spore-bearing surface exposed) 

This division of Autobasidiomycete or higher basidiomycete 
fungi comprises the following orders: Dacromycetales, Exobasidiales, 
Thelephorales, Clavariales and Agaricales. 

Order 1. —Dacromycetales. —This order includes the “weeping 
fungi.’’ One of the most common is Dacromyces deliquescens which 



Pig. 142. —Coral-like fruit-bodies of Clavaria flava. (Harshberger, from Photo 
by W. H. Walmsley.) 


occurs as a gelatinous body of bright red color on dead wood. The 
basidiospores are formed during a wet period and the fungus swells 
up in the water forming a slimy mass. In addition to basidiospores 
the mycelium may break up into oidiospores, if the wet period is 
prolonged. In consisting of slimy gelatinous masses the “weeping 
fungi” approach the Tremellacea but are distinguished from them 












TAXONOMY 273 

in the basidium being undivided in the former and divided in the 
latter. 

Order 2.— Exobasidiales. —This group is found growing parasitic- 
ally on shrubs especially those of the heath family. The mycelium 
lives in the tissues of the stems, leaves, sepals and petals and pro¬ 
duces spongy fleshy yellowish or brownish galls which are popularly 
called “Azalea apples.” The galls are edible. They are covered 
with a hymenium. 



Fig. 143 .—Boletus felleus in three stages of development. (After Patterson, 
Flora W. and Charles, Vera K., Bull. 175, U. S. Dept. Agric., pi. xxxi, Apr. 29, 
1915 ) 


Order 3.— Thelephorales, forms appearing on tree trunks , as 
leathery incrustations or as bracts'on the ground, old logs, etc. 

Order 4.— Clavariales, the coral or fairy club fungi. Fleshy coral 
or club-shaped forms, all of which are saprophytes found in woods 
growing in bunches out of leaf mold. They are all edible and of a 
white, yellow or some other brilliant color. (See fig. 142.) 







PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


274 

Order 5.— Agaricales, the mushroom or toadstool alliance. Alike 
with the other members of the Basidiomycetes, the plant body con¬ 
sists of the mycelium, ramifying through the substratum, but the 
part which rises above the surface (the Sporophore) is in most cases 
differentiated into a stalk-like body called a stipe bearing upon its 
summit a cap or pileus, the latter having special surfaces for the 
hymenium. ..... 

Family I. —Hydnaceae, or tooth fungi. This .group is charac¬ 
terized by the hymenium being placed over purple-like, spiny or 
long digitate projections of the pileus. Many of the species of the 
genus Hydnum are edible. 

Family II.— Polyporaceae, or pore fungi. The sporophores or 
fruiting bodies of these fungi are various. They may be entirely 
supinate with pores or shallow depressions on their upper surfaces 
(Merulius), or mushroom-like (Boletus), or of the nature of woody 
(Fomes) or fleshy (Fistulina) brackets. In all cases the hymenium 
or basidial layer lines the inner surface of pores. • 

The sporophore of Polyporus officinalis, when deprived of its outer 
rind and dried, constitutes the official N.F. drug Agaricus. This 
species grows abundantly on various species of pines, spruces and 
larches. 

Family III.— Agaricaceae, the gill family, in which the hymenium 
covers blade-like plates of the pileus, called gills, generally occurring 
on the under surface of the same. Examples: Agaricus campestris, 
the common edible mushroom of fields; Amanita muscaria and 
Amanita phalloides, both of which are poisonous. 

Agaricus Campestris (Common Mushroom). —This plant is an 
edible gill fungus which grows in open, grassy fields during late sum¬ 
mer and early autumn. It is never found in the forest or on trees or 
fallen trunks, seldom in the mountains. The cultivated form grows 
in specially constructed houses made of boards. A corridor runs 
through these houses so that the mushroom beds can be easily 
reached. In the growth of mushrooms tons of horse manure are 
used. This is covered with loamy soil 1}^ inches thick. The whole 
mass is compacted together. Into the resultant beds is introduced 
English-grown spawn, which comes in flat brick-shaped masses (horse 
manure through which mycelium has grown). Pieces of these 


TAXONOMY 


27 5 



“bricks” are put in the horse manure bed only after the heat has 
first disappeared. The beds are then watered well and in a short 
time the sporophores or fruiting bodies of the fungus spring up. 

The mycelium or vegetative body of Agaricus which develops 
in the soil from spores (basidiospores) is white and thready. On this 
mycelium develops little buttons, first about the size of a pin head, 
becoming later pea size and then assuming a pear-shaped form. At 
this stage the sporophore consists of a cylindrical solid stipe or stalk 
and a pileus or cap. The border of the pileus is joined to the stipe 


Fig. 144. —Meadow mushroom (Agaricus campestris L.). A, view showing 
under side of pileus; g, gills; a, annulus, or remains of the veil attached to’ a the 
stipe; B, side view; s, stipe; a, annulus; p, margin of pileus, showing at intervals 
the remains of the veil. (Gager, after W. A. Murrill .) 

by means of a “ partial veil” Within this veil is found a circular 
cavity, into which the gills grow. At first the stipe grows faster than 
the rest of the fruiting body. The pileus expands transversely and 
the gills keep pace. After a while the veil ruptures, leaving a portion 
attached to the stipe. This constitutes the annulus or ring (true 
annulus). The hyphae in the pileus form the Tela contexta. If we 
make a section through a gill, the hyphae are seen to run longitudi¬ 
nally. The central part is called the trama\ next and outside trama 
is the sub-hymeniunr, next, hymenium, consisting of basidia (hence a 




276 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


basidial layer). Each basidium bears one or two little points known 
as sterigmata. Each sterigma bears a purplish-brown basidiospore. 
The basidiospores falling to the ground germinate into hyphae and 
these become interlaced to form a mycelium. 

In the wild mushroom the gills are at first pink, in cultivated, 
fawn-colored. Ultimately in the wild form the gills turn brownish. 
The spores are purplish-brown. The color of the stipe and upper 
surface of the pileus varies from whitish to a drab color. 



Pig. 145. —Deadly amanita (Amanita muscaria ) showing volva at base of stem 
and frill, like stem ring. (After Chestnut, V. K., Bull. 175, U. S. Dept. Agric., pi. 
i, Apr. 29, 1915.) 


The Amanitas (Poisonous Fungi ).—Amanita muscaria and Aman¬ 
ita phalloides, commonly known as the “fly agaric” and the “deadly 
agaric” respectively, are very poisonous forms. Amanita muscaria 
is common in coniferous forests, although may occasionally be found 
in grassy places. It occurs singly and not in groups. Amanita 
phalloides is found in woods and borders of fields and, like the fly 
agaric, occurs singly and not in groups. 

Each of these have fruiting bodies (sporophores), which begin at 



TAXONOMY 


277 


the surface of the ground as a button similar to that of the edible 
mushroom. This enlarges and assumes a dumbbell shape. The 
whole button is covered by an outer veil, known as the velum univer¬ 
sale, which encloses the pileus, gills and stipe. As the stipe lengthens 
more rapidly than the pileus, the upper part of the veil is stretched 
and finally breaks in its middle portion. The lower part remains as 



Fig. 146.—The deadly amanita, Amanita phalloides. Note the cup at the base 
of the stipe. (Gager, from photo by E. M. Kittredge .'l 

a cup, out of which the stipe grows. The upper part is carried up as 
shreds adhering to the margin of the pileus. The lower part is 
called the volva or death cup. The annulus present is a false annulus, 
for it represents a peeling down of the upper part of the stipe. Both 
have chalk-white gills, a white stipe, and white spores. 





278 PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 

The pileus of Amanita muscaria is yellow, or orange-red; the 
surface is smooth, with prominent warty scales. 

The pileus of Amanita phalloides varies from dull yellow to olive 
to pure white. It does not possess the warty scales found in the 
Amanita muscaria, but occasionally has a few membranous patches. 

Division b.—Gasteromycetes 
(Hymenium inclosed) 

Order 1.—Lycoperdales, or puffball alliance. This order includes 
a number of interesting parasites and saprophytes the most common 
of which are the earth stars belonging to the genus Geaster and the 


Fig. 147.—A colony of Puff Balls, Lycoperdon, growing saprophytically upon a 
portion of a rotten log. (Photograph by author.) 

puff balls, the most common form being Lycoperdon. In these, the 
fruiting sporophore consists for the most part of a shell-like covering 
called the peridium, composed of an outer layer or exoperidium and 
an inner layer or endoperidium. The peridium in the unripe con¬ 
dition of the sporophore covers a mass of soft cellular tissue called 
the gleba. Upon the ripening of this mass, the interior is seen to be 
divided into many-branched compartments that are separated from 
each other by walls made up of branched hyphae. These walls are 
lined with a hymenium composed of many basidia, each of which 




TAXONOMY 


279 


constricts off usually four basidiospores. The earth stars differ 
from the puff balls in possessing an outer wall or exoperidium which 
splits in star-shaped fashion. 

Order 2.— Nidulariales, the nest fungi. A group of Gasteromy- 
cetes whose sporophores are crucible- or crater-like. These arise 
from a subterranean mycelium and show 
an outer and inner peridial layer. The 
outer peridium is roughened at its base. 

The inner peridium is leathery and may 
or may not be continued over the top. 

When mature the crucible-like body 
shows black seed-like bodies inside which 
resemble eggs in a bird’s nest. Each 
one of these is connected with the inner 
peridium by a cord which resembles the 
umbilical cord of an animal. These 
inner bodies are called periodiola (sing. 
peridiolum ). Each peridiolum consists 
of a hard glistening outer layer and a 
spongy inner layer surrounding a cavity 
into which basida and basidiospores pro¬ 
ject. These fungi are found in stiff 
clayey soil. 

Order 3.— Phallales, the carrion or 
stink-horn fungi. This, the highest 
group of the Autobasidiomycetes, con¬ 
sists of highly and characteristically 
colored forms which, when mature, emit 
most vile and penetrating odors. The 
fruiting body, in each instance, begins 
as an egg-shaped structure which starts 
its growth from a widely spread under¬ 
ground mycelium of chalky-white color. 

As the “eggs” enlarge they push above the surface of the ground. 
The central portion, elongating, then breaks through the outer or 
peridial portion, which remains as a cup or volva at the base of the 
mature fruit body. Upon the summit of the central stalk rests the 



Pig. 148. —Mature stink- 
horn, Dictyophora duplicata. 
( Harshberger, front photo, by 
W. H. Walmsley.) 




2 SO 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 



cup-like many-chambered gleba. The basidiospores are imbedded 
in a greenish fetid slime formed by a mucilaginous disintegration 
of the substance of the hymenium. This fetid green material is 
attractive to carrion flies which visit the plants and -remove the 
material with its embedded spores. The latter will not germinate 
until after passing through the alimentary canal of these flies. 

Class IV.—Fungi Imperfecti 

An assemblage of varied forms, the life histories of most of which 
are imperfectly understood. In this group are included numerous 
parasites which produce diseases in crop plants. 

SUBDIVISION V.—LICHENS, THE LICHENS 

Lichens are variously colored, usually dry and leathery plants, 
consisting of symbioses of algae and fungi. In each case the fungus 


Fig. 149.—A foliaceous lichen, Physica slellaris (L.) Nyb., growing on a rock. 
The cup-shaped structures are the fruiting bodies (apothecia). At the left are 
seen two very young plants. (Gager.) 

derives its food from materials manufactured by the. algae and in 
return extracts water from the substratum and shares it with the 
algae. The association is therefore mutually beneficial. Blue- 
green and Protococcus forms of Green Algae and Ascomycete Fungi 
are for the most part concerned in lichen formation. 




TAXONOMY 


281 


Lichens are found on the bark of trees, on rocks, logs, old fences, 
etc. The body of a lichen shows a differentiation into two regions: 
a more or less compact row of cells on both surfaces, called the epider¬ 
mis; and an inner portion composed of the mycelium of the fungus. 
The alga is imbedded in this portion. In most cases the spores are 
borne in asci, which are themselves found in closed or open Apothecia. 

Scales or soredia are found on many lichens. These consist of a 
network of hyphae enclosing algal cells. By becoming detached 
from the parent plant, they develop new lichens and so constitute 
a means of vegetative propagation. 



Pig. 150. —Cetraria islandica. (Sayre.) 


According to the manner of growth of the thallus and nature of 
attachment to the substratum, three different sub-groups of lichens 
may be distinguished, viz.: (1) Foliaceous where the thallus is flat, 
leathery and leaf-like and attached to the substratum at different 
points. To this group belong Physica and Parmelia. (2) Crus- 
taceous, where the thallus closely adheres to rocks and bark of trees. 
To this group belong Graphis and Pertusaria. (3) Fruticose, where 
the thallus is upright and branching. To the last group belong 
Cetraria islandica, species of Cladonia, and Usnea. 

To the pharmacist and chemist lichens are chiefly of interest 
because of the coloring principles which they contain. Species of 
Lecanora&nd Rocella tinctoria yield, when subjected to fermentation, 


282 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


the dyes orcein and litmus. Litmus is one of the best indicators in 
volumetric analysis. Cudbear, a purplish-red powder, used exten¬ 
sively for coloring pharmaceutical preparations in the form of tinc¬ 
ture, is prepared by treating species of Rocella, Lecanora or other 
lichens with ammonia water. Other lichens, such as Cetraria 
islandica, various species of Parmelia , Usnea and Alectoria, have 
been used in medicine because of demulcent principles which they 
contain. 

DIVISION II.—BRYOPHYTA 

Plants showing a beginning of definite alternation of genera¬ 
tions, i.e., gametophyte (sexual phase) alternating with sporophyte 



Fig. 151. Fig. 152. 


Fig. 151.—Section of thallus of Cetraria islandica through an apothecium. as, 
Asci, three of which contain ascospores. gon , Gonidia. The inner (central por¬ 
tion shows the mycelial threads of a fungus entangling the alga. (Sayre.) 

Fig. 152.—A liverwort (Lunularia). Below, portions of the thallus, showing 
the lunar-shaped cupules, with brood-buds, or gemmae. Above a single gemma, 
greatly magnified. (Gager.) 


(asexual phase of development) in their life history, the two phases 
being combined in one plant. The female sexual cell is always 
lodged in an archegonium (a multicellular female sexual organ). 







TAXONOMY 


283 


SUBDIVISION I.—HEPATICiE OR LIVERWORTS 

Plants of aquatic or terrestial habit whose bodies consist of a 
rather flat, furchate branching thallus or leafy branch which is 
dorsoventral (having distinct upper and lower surface); the upper 
surface consists of several layers of cells containing chlorophyll, 
which gives the green color to the plants; the lower surface gives 
origin to hair-like outgrowths of the epidermal cells serving as absorp¬ 
tive parts and called rhizoids. Upon the dorsal surface of this thal- 
loid body (the gametophyte) cup-like structures are produced called 
cupules which contain special reproductive bodies called gemma , 
these being able to develop into new gametophytes. The sex organs 
are of two kinds, male and female. The male organs are termed 
antheridia, the female, archegonia. The antheridia are more or less 
club-shaped, somewhat stalked organs consisting of an outer layer of 
sterile cells investing a mass of sperm mother-cells from which are 
formed the spirally curved biciliate antherozoids, or male sexual cells. 
The archegonia are flask-shaped organs consisting of an investing 
layer of sterile cells surrounding an axile row of cells, the neck-canal 
cells, ventral-canal cells and the egg or female sexual cells. Every 
cell of the axial row breaks down in the process of maturation with 
the exception of the egg which remains in the basal portion. Both 
antheridia and archegonia generally arise on special stalks above the 
dorsal surface. After the egg is fertilized by a antherozoid, the 
young embryo resulting grows into a sporogonium (the sporophyte) 
consisting of a stalk portion partly imbedded in the archegonium 
surmounting a sporangium or capsule in which spores are produced. 
When mature the capsule splits open discharging the spores. The 
spores on germination develop into a protonema or filamentous 
outgrowth which later develops the thallus. 

Order 1.—Marchantiales, including Marchantia and Riccia . 

Order 2.—Jungermanniales, the leafy liverworts, including 
Porella. 

Order 3.—Anthocerotales, having the most complex sporo¬ 
phyte generations among liverworts, including Anthoceros, and 
M egaceros. 


284 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


SUBDIVISION II— MUSCI OR MOSSES 

Plants found on the ground, on rocks, trees and in running water. 
Their life histories consist of two generations, gametophyte and 



Fig. 153. — Sphagnum acutifolium , Ehrb. A, prothallus (pr), with a young leafy 
branch just developing from it; B, portion of a leafy plant; a, male cones; ch, 
female branches; C, male branch or cone, enlarged with a portion of the vegetative 
branch adhering to its base; D, the same, with a portion of the leaves removed so 
as to disclose the antheridia; E, antheridium discharging spores; F, a single sperm; 
G, longitudinal section of a female branch, showing the archegonia (ar)\ H, 
longitudinal section through a sporogonium; sg 1 , the foot; ps, pseudopodium; c, 
calyptra; sg, sporogonium, with dome of sporogenous tissue; ar, old neck of the 
archegonium; J. Sphagnum squarrosum Pers.; d, operculum; c, remains of calyp¬ 
tra; qs, mature pseudopodium; ch, perichaetium. (Gager, from Schimper .) 

sporophyte similar to the liverworts but differ from liverworts, 
generally, by the ever-present differentiation of the gametophyte 





TAXONOMY 


285 


body into distinct stem and simple leaves, and the formation of the 
sexual organs at the end of an axis of a shoot. They are either monoe¬ 
cious, when both kinds of sexual organs are borne on the same plant, 



Fig. 154. —Hair-cap moss (Polytrichum commune). A, male plant; B, same, 
proliferating; C, female plant, bearing sporogonium; D, same; g, gametophyte; s, 
seta; c, capsule; o, operculum; a, calpytra; E, top view of male plant. {Gager.), 


9 













286 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


or dioecious , in which case the antheridia and archegonia arise on 
different plants. 

Order i.—Sphagnales, or Bog Mosses, including the simple genus, 
Sphagnum. Pale mosses of swampy habit whose upper extremities 
repeat their growth periodically while their lower portions die away 
gradually and form peat, hence their frequent name of Peat Mosses. 

A number of species of Sphagnum have been recently employed 
in surgery as absorbents in place of gauze. For this purpose they 
must be thoroughly cleaned and sterilized. 

Order 2.— Andreaeales, including the single genus Andreaea, of 
xerophytic habit, occurring on siliceous rock. 

Order 3.— Bryales, or true mosses, comprising' the most highly 
evolved type of bryophytes. Examples: Polytrichum , - Funaria , 
Hypnum , and Mnium. 

Life History of Polytrichum Commune (A Typical True Moss).— 

Polytrichum commune is quite common in woods, forming a 
carpet-like covering on the ground beneath tall tree canopies. It is 
dioecious, the plants being oi two kinds, male and female. 

Beginning with a spore which has fallen to the damp soil, we note 
its beginning of growth (germination) as a green filamentous body 
called a protonema. This protonema soon becomes branched, giving 
rise to hair-like outgrowths from its lower portion called rhizoids 
and lateral buds above these which grow into leafy stems commonly 
known as “moss plants.” At the tips of some of these leafy stems 
antheridia (male sexual organs) are formed while on others arche¬ 
gonia (female sexual organs), are formed. These organs are sur¬ 
rounded at the tips by delicate hairy processes called paraphyses 
as well as leaves for protection. The antheridia bear the anthero- 
zoids, the archegonia, the eggs or ova, as in the liverworts. When 
an abundance of moisture is present, the antherozoids are liberated 
from the antheridia, swim through the water to an archegonium 
and descend the neck canal, one fertilizing the egg by uniting with 
it. This completes the sexual or gametophyte generation. The 
fertilized egg now undergoes division until an elongated stalk 
bearing upon its summit a capsule is finally produced, this being 
known as the sporogonium. The base of the stalk remains imbedded 
in the basal portion of the archegonium, at the tip of the leafy 


TAXONOMY 


287 


stalk, and forms a foot or absorbing process. In growing upward 
the sporogonium ruptures the neck of the archegonium and carries 
it upward as the covering of the capsule, or calyptra. The calyptra 
is thrown off before the spores are matured within the capsule. 
The upper part of the capsule becomes converted into a lid or oper¬ 
culum at the margin of which an annulus or ring of cells forms. The 
cells of the annulus are hygroscopic and expand at maturity, throw¬ 
ing off the lid and allowing the spores to escape. This completes 



Pig. 155.—Protonemata of a moss bearing young gametophyte bud. {Gager.) 

the asexual or sporophyte generation. The spores falling to the 
damp soil germinate into protonemata, thus completing the life 
cycle in which is seen an alteration of generations, the two phases, 
gametophyte alternating with sporophyte. 

DIVISION III.—PTERIDOPHYTA 

The most highly developed cryptogams showing a distinct alter¬ 
nation of generations in their life history. They differ from the 
Bryophytes in presenting independent, leafy, vascular, root-bearing 
sporophytes. 



288 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


SUBDIVISION I.—LYCOPODINE^E OR CLUB MOSSES 

Small perennial, vascular, dichotomously branched herbs with 
stems thickly covered with awl-shaped leaves. The earliest forms of 
vascular plants differing from ferns in being comparatively simple in 
structure, of small size, leaves sesssile and usually possessing a single 
vein. Except in a few instances the sporangia are borne on leaves, 
crowded together and forming cones or spikes at the ends of the 
branches—Homosporous. 



Fig. 156. —Lycopodium clavatum. (Gager.) 


Family I.—Lycopodiaceae, including the single genus Lycopodium 
wi th widely distributed species. The spores of Lycopodium clavatum 
are official. 

Family II.—Selaginellaceae, including the single genus Selaginella 
with species for the greater part tropical. Plants similar in habit to 
the Lycopodiaceae but showing heterospory. 

Family III. -Isoetaceae, including the single genus Isoetes whose 
species are plants with short and tuberous stems giving rise to a tuft 






TAXONOMY 289 

of branching roots below and a thick rosette of long, stiff awl-shaped 
leaves above—Heterosporous. 

SUBDIVISION II.—EQUISETINE^E 
(The Horsetails or Scouring Rushes) 

The Equisetineae, commonly known as the Horsetails or Scouring 
rushes, are perennial plants with hollow, cylindrical, jointed and 



Fig. 157 .—'.Selaginella Martensii. a, vegetative branch; b, portion of the 
stem, bearing cjnes ( x ); c, longitudinal section of a cone, showing microsporangia 
( mic . sp.) in the axils of microsporophylls, and megasporangia in the axils of meg- 
asporophylls; d, microsporangium with microsporophyll; e, microspores; /, por¬ 
tion of wall of sporangium, greatly magnified; g, megaspore; h, microsporangium 
opened, and most of the microspores scattered; i, megasporangium, with mega- 
sporophyll; k, same, opened, showing the four megaspores. {Gager.) 

fluted stems, sheath-like whorls of united leaves and terminal cone¬ 
like fructifications. Their bodies contain large amounts of silicon, 
hence the name scouring rushes. 

19 


290 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


In some varieties the fruiting cone is borne on the ordinary 
stem, in others on a special stem of slightly different form. In the 
latter the spores are provided with elaters, which, being hygroscopic, 
coil and uncoil with increase or decrease in the amount of moisture 
present, thus aiding in the ejection of spores from the sporangia. 
The number of species is small and included under one genus, 
Equisetum. (See fig. 158.) 

SUBDIVISION III.—FILICINEyE 

The group Filicineae is the largest among the vascular cryptogams 
and includes all the plants commonly known as Ferns. The main 
axis of a typical fern is a creeping underground stem or rhizome 
which at its various nodes bears rootlets below and fronds above. 
These fronds are highly developed, each being provided with a 
petiole-like portion called a stipe which is extended into a lamina 
usually showing a forked venation. Some ferns possess laminae 
which are lobed, each lobe being called a pinna. If a pinna be 
further divided, its divisions are called pinnules. The unfolding of a 
frond is circinate and it increases in length by apical growth. On 
the under surface of the laminae, pinnae, or pinnules may be seen 
small brown patches each of which is called a sorus, and usually 
covered by a membrane called the indusium. Each sorus consists 
of a number of sporangia (spore cases) developed from epidermal 
cells. In some ferns the entire leaf becomes a spore-bearing organ 
(sporophyll). Most sporangia have a row of cells around the margin, 
the whole being called the annulus. Each cell of the annulus has a 
U-shaped thickened cell wall. Water is present within these cells and 
when it evaporates it pulls the cell walls together, straightening the 
ring and tearing open the weak side. The annulus then recoils and 
hurls the spores out of the sporangium. Upon coming into contact 
with damp earth each spore germinates, producing a green sep¬ 
tate filament called a protonema. This later becomes a green heart- 
shaped body called a prothallus. It develops on its under surface 
anthefidia or male organs and archegonia or female organs as well 
as numerous rhizoids. Within the antheridia are developed motile 
sperms , while ova are produced within the archegonia. The many 
ciliate sperms escape from the antheridia of one prothallus during a 


TAXONOMY 


291 


wet season, and, moving through the water, are drawn by a chemo- 
tactic influence to the archegonia of another prothallus, pass down 
the neck canals of these and fuse with the ova, fertilizing them. 
The fertilized egg or oospore divides and redivides and soon becomes 
differentiated into stem-bud, first leaf, root, and foot. The foot 



Fig. 158. — Equisetum arvense. P, sterile branch; P 1 , fertile branch with 
strobilus, or cone; R, rhizome, (underground); T, cross-section of cone, showing 
insertion of sporophylls in a whorl; N, N 1 , sporophylls with pendant sporangia; 
S, S 1 , S 2 , spores with coiled elaters (el). (Gager.) 

obtains nourishment from the prothallus until the root grows into 
the soil, when it atrophies, and the sporophyte becomes independent. 
Unequal growth and division of labor continue until a highly differ¬ 
entiated sporophyte results, the mature “fern plant.” 







292 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


ORDER 1 .—FIL1CALES OR TRUE FERNS (HOMOSPOROUS) 

Family Polypodiaceov. —Sporangia with annulus vertical and 
incomplete. 

The rhizomes and stipes of Dryopteris filix-mas and Dryopteris mar- 
ginalis are official in the U. S. P. The fibro-vascular bundles of 
these are concentric in type but differ from the concentric fibro- 
vascular bundles of some monocotyledons in that xylem is inner¬ 
most and phloem surrounds the xylem. 


Pig. 159. —Cyrtomium falcatum. Under (dorsal) surface of a portion of a 
sporophyll, showing the numerous sori on the pinnae. (Gager.) 


ORDER 2.— HYDROPTERALES OR WATER FERNS 
(HETEROSPOROUS) 

Family Salviniacea. Floating ferns with broad floating leaves and 
submerged dissected leaves which bear sporocarps. Examples: Sal- 
vinia and Azolla. 

DIVISION IV.—SPERMATOPHYTA (PHANEROGAMIA) 

Plants producing real flowers and seeds. The highest evolved 
division of the vegetable kingdom. 

SUBDIVISION I.—GYMNOSPERMVE—THE GYMNOSPERMS 

The Gymnosperms comprise an ancient and historic group of seed 
plants which were more numerous in the Triassic and Carboniferous 










TAXONOMY 


293 


periods than now. They differ from the Angiosperms in several 
respects, viz.: they bear naked ovules on the edges or flat surfaces 
of leaves called carpels, while Angiosperms bear covered ones; each 
megaspore produces within itself a bulky prothallus, in the upper 
portion of which originate one or more archegonia, while in Angio¬ 
sperms no recognizable prothallus has been proven to exist; the 
stored food tissue within their seeds is prothallial tissue loaded with 
starch, etc., while that in Angiosperm seeds (endosperm) is developed 
from the endosperm nucleus; the mode of growth of their stems is 
always indefinite while that of Angiosperms is either indefinite or 
definite. 



Pig. 160.— Cycas revoluta, showing terminal bud of foliage-leaves just opening. 

(Gager.) 

The groups still extant are the Gycads or Fern Palms, the Gne- 
tums, the Ephedras, the Ginkgos and the Conifers. Of these the 
Conifers comprising over 300 species are the most numerous. Many 
of them yield valuable products to pharmacy and the arts. 

The Conifers include the pines, spruces, hemlocks, cedars, firs, 
arbor vitae, chamaecyparis, and larches. All of their number are 
evergreen except the larches, which drop their foliage upon the 
advent of winter. 





294 PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 

I. Order Coniferales. —Trees with a single upright stem which 
develops side branches that spread out horizontally and taper to a 
point at the summit, giving the crown of the tree the appearance of 
a huge cone, rarely shrubs. 

Pinacece (Conifer ce) or Pine Family .—Trees or shrubs with resin¬ 
ous juice whose wood is characterized by being composed largely of 
tracheids with bordered pits. Leaves entire, awl- or needle-shaped 
frequently fascicled, exstipulate, usually evergreen. Flowers, 
monoecious or rarely dioecious, achlamydeous, in cones. Staminate 


JL' lAr. IU 1 * liiliVltowuuvo Vi i»ixv yxxiVf jl , x v* iiiijuioi i/W 15, x, uvuiauv vuug, J t 

staminate cone; 4, two-year-old cone. ( Hamaker .) 


cone of a large number of microsporophylls (stamens) closely packed 
together and arranged spirally around a central axis, each stamen 
bearing usually two pollen sacs. Carpellate cone composed of 
spirally arranged scales, each of which bears a pair of naked ovules 
(megasori) near the base of its upper face, or, ovules springing from a 
cupuliform disc. Fruit a cone with woody or fleshy scales- (Pinus, 
Thuja , Abies, Picea, etc.), a galbalus (Juniperus) or a drupe com¬ 
posed of the thickened and fleshy disc surrounding an erect seed. 
( Taxus ). Seeds albuminous. Embryo with two ot more cotyledons. 








TAXONOMY 


2 95 


Official drug Part used 

Terebinthina N.F. Concrete oleoresin 


Resina 


Oleum Tere- 
binthinae 

Pix Liquida.. 


Oleum Pini Pumi- 
lionis 

Terebinthina 
Laricis N.F. 
Juniperus N.F. 

Oleum Juniperi 

Oleum Cadinum 
Thuja N.F. 

Oil of Cedarwood 

Unofficial drug 

Sabina 

Pix Burgundica 
Terebinthina 
Canadensis 
Sandaraca 

Dammar 


Spruce Gum 


Resin 

Volatile oil 

Product of destruc 
tive distillation 


Volatile oil 

Oleoresin 

Fruit 

Volatile oil 

Empyreumatic oil 
Learfy young twigs 

Oil from wood 

Tops 

Resinous exudate 
Liquid oleoresin 

Resinous exudate 

Resinous exudate 


Gum 


Botanical origin 

Pinus palustris 
and other species 
of Pinus 
Pinus palustris 
and other species 
of Pinus 
Pinus palustris 
and other species 
of Pinus 
Pinus palustris 
and other species 
of Pinus 
Pinus Strobus 

Pinus montana 


Juniperus Sabina 
Abies excelsa 
Abies balsamea 

Callitris 
quadrivalvis 
Agathis 
loranthifolia 
Pinites succinifer 
Pinus maritima 

Tsuga canadensis 
Pseudotsuga 
mucronata 

Picea canadensis 
Picea mariana 
Picea rubra 


Habitat 

Southern United 
States 

Southern United 
States 

Southern United 
States 

Southern United 
States 

United States and 
Canada 
Tyrolese Alps 


Europe 

Europe and Asia 
Northern United 
States and Canada 
Africa 

E. India 

Basin of Baltic 
France 

North America 
Western United 
States and 
British Columbia 

Canada and New 
England 


Pinus Alba N.F. Inner bark 


Succinum (Amber) Fossil resin 
Bordeaux Concrete oleoresin 

Turpentine ' 

Pix Canadensis Oleoresin 

Oregon Balsam Oleoresin 


Larix europsea Alps and 

Carpathians 

Juniperus 

communis I North America, 

Juniperus j Europe and Asia 

communis J 

Juniperus Oxycedrus So. Europe 
Thuja occidentalis United States and 
Canada 

Juniperus North America 

Virginiana 


296 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


SUBDIVISION II.—ANGIOSPERMS OR ANGIOSPERMS 
(Plants with covered seeds) 

Class A. —Monocotyledones 

A class of Angiosperms characterized by the following peculi¬ 
arities: 



Fig. 162.—Morphology of the typical monocotyledonous plait. A, leaf, 
parallel-veined; B, portion of stem, showing irregular distribution of vascular 
bundles; C, ground plan of flower (the parts in 3’s); D, top view of flower; E, seed, 
showing monocotyledonous embryo. {Gager.) 


One cotyledon or seed leaf in the embryo. 

Stems endogenous with closed collateral or concentric fibro-vascu¬ 
lar bundles, which are scattered. 

Leaves generally parallel veined. 




























TAXONOMY 



Fig. 163. —Wheat plant showing the general habit of grasses. (Robbins.) 







298 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Flowers trimerous (having the parts of each whorl in threes or 
multiple thereof). 

Secondary growth in roots generally absent. 

Medullary rays generally absent. 



Fig. 164. —Pistillate and staminate inflorescences of corn (Zea mays). 
(Robbins.) 

I. Order Graminales.— Graminece or Grass Family .—Mostly 
herbs with cylindric, hollow jointed stems whose nodes are swollen. 
The leaves are alternate, with long split sheaths and a ligule. Flow- 







: TAXONOMY — 299 

ers generally hermaphroditic and borne in spikelets, making 
up a spicate inflorescence. Lowest floral leaves of each spikelet are 
called glumes, which are empty and paired. Fruit, a caryopsis or 
grain. Embryo with scutellum. Seeds, albuminous. Seed coat 


fused with fruit coat to form one layer. 


Official drug 

.Si. _ ; 

Part use d 

Botanical name 

Habitat 

Triticum 

Rhizome and. roots Agropyron repens 

Europe and Asia 

Saccharum' ‘ 

Refined'sugar 

* Saccharum 

Tropics 

' v - 

» “.. i * ' 

officinarum 

Beta vulgaris var. 

Germany 

Maltum 

Seed, partially 

Rapa 

and Sorghum sp. 
Hordeum sativum 

Asia and Africa 
Asia 

Amylum 

germinated and 
dried 

Starch 

Zea Mays 

Mexico 

Zea N.F. 

Styles and stigmas Zea Mays 

Mexico 


II. Order Principles. —Palmece or Palm Family .—Tropical or sub¬ 
tropical shrubs, rarely trees, having unbranched trunks which are 
terminated by a crown of leaves, in the axils of which the flowers are 
produced. The leaves are well developed with pinnate or palmate 
blades and a fibrous sheathed clasping petiole. The flowers are 
small, of one or two sexes, and crowded on a spike or spadix, which is 
subtended by a large bract, or spathe which may become woody, as 
in the Cocoanut Palm. The perianth consists of 6 parts in 2 whorls 
(3 sepals and 3 petals) or it may be inconspicuous or absent. The 
stamens are 6 in number, rarely 3, inserted below the ovary. The 
ovary is superior, of 3 cells, with central placenta. The fruit is 
either a nut, with leathery epicarp, fibrous or cellular mesocarp and 
thin membranous endocarp, or a drupe (Cocoanut) with leathery 
epicarp, broadly fibrous mesocarp and stony endocarp, or a berry 
as in the Date Palm, Phoenix , with membranous epicarp, succulent 
mesocarp and soft succulent endocarp. The seeds are albuminous 
with the reserve food frequently in the form of hard cellulose (ivory- 
nut-palm). 


300 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Official drug 

Sabal 

Unofficial 

Dragon’s Blood 
Cocoanut oil 
Carnauba wax 
Areca nut 

Palm oil 


Part used 

Fruit (drupe) 

Inspissated juice 
Fixed oil 
Wax from leaves 
Seed 

Fixed oil 


Botanical name 

Serenoa serrulata 


Calamus Draco 
Cocos nucifera 
Copernicia cerifera 
Areca Catechu 

Elaeis guineensis 


Habitat 

South Carolina to 
Florida 

East'Indies 

Tropics 

Brazil 

Asia and East 
Indies 
West Africa 



Fig. 165.—Sabal palmetto. This palm, which appears in the center of the 
figure, yields the official drug, sabal. In the right distance a barragona palm. 
Cuba. (Gager.) 


III. Order Arales. —Aracece or Arum Family .—Perennial herbs 
with fleshy rhizomes or corms, and long petioled leaves, containing 
an acrid or pungent juice. Flowers crowded on a spadix, which is 
usually surrounded by a spathe. Fruit a berry. Seeds with large 
fleshy embryo. 





TAXONOMY 


301 


Unofficial drug Part used Botanical name 

Calamus Unpeeled rhizome Acorus calamus 


Skunk cabbage Rhizome 

Indian turnip Corm 


Symplocarpus 

fcetidus 

Arisaema 

triphyllum 


Habitat 

Europe, Asia, 
North America 
North America 

North America 



Fig. 166. —Acorus calamus. (Sayre.) 

IV. Order Liliales. —Liliacece or. Lily Family .—Herbs ( Lilium ), 
shrubs (Yucca), or trees (Dracena Draco), with regular and sym¬ 
metrical almost always six-androus flowers. Stem either short, 















3° 2 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


creeping underground (. Polygonatum ), or, swelling up and forming 
bulbs (Hyacinth), or corms (< Colchicum ), or, stem may elongate 
above ground and become wiry and herbaceous or semi-shrubby as 
Smilax, dr the stem may remain short giving rise to thick fleshy and 
sap-storing leaves as in Aloe. Leaves linear ; to lanceolate, ovate 
rarely wider, divisible into sheathing base, narrow petiole and ex- 



Fig. 167.—Diagram of A, lily flower, and B, grass.flower, showing homologous 
structures. A, f, bract; ax, axis; op, outer perianth; ip, inner perianth; s, sta¬ 
mens; (c) tricarpellary ovary. B, shaded structures are aborted; le, lemma 
(bract); ax, axis; p and p', palet (outer perianth); l and V, lodicules (inner peri¬ 
anth); s and s', two whorls of stamens; c, tricarpellary ovary. ( A, Robbins. B, 
after Shuster.) 

panded blade. Venation, parallel, becoming in some ovate leaves 
parallel with oblique connections, reticulate or highly reticulate as 
in Smilax , etc. The perianth is parted into six segments, the calyx 
and corolla being alike in color. Anthers introrse. Ovary three- 
locular with a single style. Fruit a three-locular, loculicidally de¬ 
hiscent capsule {Lilium, etc.) or rarely a berry {Asparagus, etc.). 
Seeds usually numerous, albuminous. 


TAXONOMY 


3°3 


Official drug 

Sarsaparilla 


Part used 


Root 


Botanical name 

Smilax medica 
Smilax ornata 
Smilax officinalis 


Habitat 

Mexico 
Costa Rica 
Guatemala, 
Honduras and 
Nicaragua 


Veratrum 

Rhizome and roots Veratrum viride 

United States 

Colchici Cormus 

Corm 

Colchicum 

Mediterranean 



autumnale 

Basin 

Official drug 

Part used 


Botanical name 

Habitat 

Colchici Semen 

Seed 

Colchicum 

Mediterranean 



autumnale 

Basin 



Aloe vera 

Dutch West Indies 

Aloe 

Inspissated juice 

Aloe Perryi 

Socotra and East 


of leaves 



Africa 



Aloe ferox 

South Africa 

Scilla 

Bulb 

Urginea maritima 

Mediterranean 





Basin 

Veratrina 

Mixture of 

Asagraea officinalis 

Mexico and 


alkaloids 



Central America 

Convallarise Radix 

Rhizome and roots 




N.F. 



Convallaria j 

' Europe, Asia, 

Convallariae 

Inflorescence 


majalis l 

. United States 

Flores N.F. 





Trillium N.F. 

Rhizome and roots Trillium erectum 

North America 

Allium N.F. 

Bulb (fresh) 

Allium sativum 

Europe, Asia 





North America 

Aletris N.F. 

Rhizome and roots Aletris farinosa 

Eastern United 





States 

Helonias N.F. 

Rhizome and roots Chamaelirium 

Eastern United 



luteum 

States 


Dioscoreacea or Yam Family .—Herbs or shrubs with twining stems 
arising from large tuberous roots or knotted rootstocks. Leaves 
ribbed and netted-veined. Flowers small, dioecious, regular, 
having a six-cleft calyx-like perianth, six stamens and a three- 
celled ovary. Fruit usually a membranous three-angled or winged 
capsule. 

Official drug Part used Botanical name Habitat 

Dioscorea N.F. Rhizome Dioscorea villosa United States 




304 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Iridacece or Iris Family .—Perennial herbs with equitant two- 
ranked leaves and regular or irregular flowers which are showy. 
Fruit a three-celled, loculicidal, many-seeded capsule. Rootstocks, 
tubers, or corms mostly acrid. 


Official drug 

Iris N.F. 

Iris Versicolor 
N.F. 

Crocus N.F. 


Part used 

Peeled rhizome 

Rhizome 

Stigmas 


Botanical name 

f Iris florentina 
Iris pallida 
Iris germanica 
Iris versicolor 

Crocus sativus 


Habitat 

\ Europe 

Eastern United 
States 

Mediterranean 

Basin 


V. Order Scitaminales. —Zingiber acece or Ginger Family. —Trop¬ 
ical plants, perennial herbs, with fleshy rhizomes and large elliptical 
pinnately-veined leaves. The leaf sheaths are folded tightly around 
each other so as to give the appearance of a stem. Flowers, very 
irregular, trimerous; sepals three short, often green; petals three, 
elongate, often fused below; stamens three to four abortive, petaloid, 
one often absent, a sixth alone fertile and stamen-like. The petaloid 
stamens constitute the most attractive parts of the flower. Pistil, 
inferior, tricarpellary. Fruit, a capsule. Seeds, albuminous with 
both perispermic and endospermic albumen. 


Official drug Part used 


Botanical name Habitat 


Zingiber 

Cardamomi 

Semen 

Galanga N.F. 

Zedoaria N.F. 

Unofficial drug 

Curcuma 


Rhizome 

Seeds 

Rhizome 

Rhizome 


Zingiber officinale Asia 
Elettaria Indo-China 

Cardamomum 
Alpinia Asia 

officinarum 

Curcuma Zedoaria Asia, Madagascar 


Prepared rhizome Curcuma longa South Asia 


TAXONOMY 


305 


\ I. Order Orchidales.— Orchidacea or Orchid Family .—Perennial 
herbs of terrestrial or terrestrial saprophytic or epiphytic growth, 



Fig. 168 .—Smilax officinalis —Portion of vine and rhizome. {Sayre.) 


having grotesque flowers. Roots fibrous or tuberous often sapro¬ 
phytic in relation, or aerial and with velamen. Stems and branches 
20 






3°6 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


upright, in epiphytic types, often forming pseudobulbs. Leaves 
alternate, entire, parallel-veined, sheathing at base, rarely reduced 
to yellowish or pale scales in saprophytes. Flowers irregular, usu¬ 



ally attractive, entomophilous, arranged in elongated spikes or 
racemes, trimerous. Sepals, three usually similar; petals three of 
which two often resemble sepals, third is variously, often greatly 





TAXONOMY 


307 


modified and fused'with two outer petaloid stamens as a labellum 
or lighting-board for’insects. Third stamen of outer whorl fertile 
(Orchidea) or a barrel knob ( Cypripedia ); pollen of fertile anther ag¬ 
glutinate as pollinia. Three stamens of inner circle barren and 
petaloid or one absent (Cypripedicd ). Stamens all epigynous and 



Fig. 170.—Floral organs of an orchid (Cattleya sp.). A, the entire flower; sep, 
sepal; pet, petal; B, column, showir.g s, stigma and r, the rostellum (beak), with 
the small glands at the tip; to the glands are attached the four strap-shaped 
caudicles of the pollinia; C, pollinia, with the four caudicles; below, the gland; D, 
longitudinal section of the column; p, pollinium; E, the same, enlarged. (Gager.) 

often three are fused with the style as gynandrium. Carpels three, 
syncarpous, with inferior, three rarely four, one (usually)- celled 
ovary. Fruit a capsule, three-valved and one-celled. Seeds minute, 
abundant and wind disseminated. 






3°8 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Official drug Part used 

Vanilla N.F. Fruit 

Cypripedium N.F. Rhizome and roots 


Botanical name 
Vanilla Planifolia 
Cypripedium 
hirsutum 
Cypripedium 
parviflorum 


Habitat 

Mexico 

United States 



Fig. i7i .—Vanilla planifolia —Branch showing leaves and flowers. {Sayre.) 


Class B.— Dicotyledone.® 

Plants having the following characteristics: 
Two-seed leaves (cotyledons) in embryo. 
Netted-veined leaves. 






TAXONOMY 


309 


Stems, and roots of secondary growth with open collateral fibro- 
vascular bundles, radially arranged about pith. 

Exogenous stems. 

Medullary rays present. 

Cambium. 



Fig. 172-. —Morphology of a typical dicotyledonous plant. A, leaf, pinnately- 
netted veined; B, portion of stem, showing concentric layers of wood; C, ground- 
plan of flower (the parts in 5’s); D, perspective of flower; E, longitudinal section 
of seed, showing dicotyledonous embryo. {Gager.) 

Roots developing secondary structure. 

Flowers tetra- or pentamerous (parts of each whorl, four or five or 
multiple thereof). 


Sub-class a.—Archichlamyde^: 

Those dicotyledonous plants in which the petals are distinct and 
separate from one another or are entirely wanting. That group of 




























3 IQ 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


the Archichlamydeae whose flowers show the absence of petals and 
frequently of sepals is called the Apetalae. The group whose plants 
have flowers showing the parts of their corolla (petals) separate and 
distinct is called the Choripetalae. 



Fig. 173 .—Piper cubeba —Fruiting branch and fruit (enlarged). (Sayre.) 

I. Order Piperales. —Piperacece or Pepper Family .—A family of 
aromatic herbs and shrubs with jointed stems, opposite,verticillate, 
or sometimes alternate leaves without stipules, and spiked incon¬ 
spicuous, wind-pollinated flowers. The characteristic fruit is a berry 




TAXONOMY 


311 


enclosing a single upright seed with abundant perisperm (from 
megasporangial tissue) and reduced endosperm (from matured 
embryo sac). 


Official drug 

Cubeba 

Piper 

Kava N.F. 
Matico N.F. 


Part used Botanical name Habitat 

Unripe fruit Piper Cubeba Borneo, Java 

Sumatra 

Unripe fruit Piper nigrum Cochin-China, 

India 

Rhizome and roots Piper methysticum South Sea Islands 
Leaves Piper angustifolium Peru, Bolivia 



Pig. 174.—Willow ( Salix ). Leafy branch, bearing two pistillate catkins, 
Staminate flower above, at the left; pistillate flower below, at the right. (Gager 
after Britton and Brown.) 


II. Order Salicales. —Salicacetz or Willow Family .—Shrubs or 
trees of temperate or cold regions, with upright woody stems. Bark 
often containing bitter principles (Salicin etc.). 

Leaves alternate, simple, entire, stipulate; stipules rarely green, 
persistent, usually functioning as winter bud-scales and falling in 
spring. 




312 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Inflorescences dioecious spikes, so on separate plants. Staminate 
spikes forming deciduous, catkins of yellowish flowers, pistillate 
as persistent spikes of green flowers, at length maturing fruit. 

Flowers of catkins numerous, each of two to five (Willow) or 
six to fifteen (Poplar) stamens in axil of a small bract leaf, sometimes 
with small nectar knob or girdle at base; pollen abundant, hence 
plants anemophilous, rarely entomophilous. Pistillate flowers 
green, each of a bicarpellate pistil in axil of bract, ovary one-celled 
with parietal placentation, style simple, stigma bilobed. 

Fruit a capsule dehiscing longitudinally. Seeds small, exal- 
buminous, surrounded by a tuft of hairs for dissemination. 


Official drug 

Part used 

Botanical name 

Habitat 

Salicin 

Glucoside 

Several species of 

Europe, North 


| 

Salix and Populus 
r Populus nigra 

America 

1 

Populi Gemmae 

Closed leaf buds < 

Populus 

> North America 

N.F. 

Unofficial drug 


^ balsamifera 

I 

Salix 

Bark 

Salix alba 

Europe 


III. Order Myricales. —Myricacece or Bay berry Family. —Dioe¬ 
cious or sometimes monoecious, aromatic shrubs or trees with watery 
juice and possessing underground branches which arch downward 
then upward producing many suckers. Roots fibrous and bearing 
many short -rootlets upon which are frequently found coralloid 
clusters of tubercles containing the Actinomyces Myricarum Young- 
ken. Leaves alternate, revolute in vernation, serrate, irregularly 
dentate, lobed or entire, rarely pinnatifid, pinnately and reticulately 
veined, pellucid punctate, evergreen or deciduous, generally exstipu- 
late, rarely stipulate. Flowers naked, unisexual, monoecious 
or dioecious, in the axils of unisexual or androgynous aments from 
scaly buds formed in the summer in the axils of the leaves of the 
year, remaining covered during the winter and opening in March or 
April before or with the unfolding of the leaves of the year. 

Staminate flowers in elongated catkins, each consisting of two to 
eight stamens inserted on the torus-like base of the oval to oval- 
lanceolate bracts of the catkin, usually subtended by two or four 
or rarely by numerous bracteoles; filaments short or elongated, 


TAXONOMY 



Fig. 175.—Two Myrica cerifera trees growing in a field near a brackish swamp 
at Rio Grande, N. J. Photographed by author July 26, 1914. 

linear subulate bracteoles, accrescent, and forming a laciniate 
involucre inclosing the fruit; styles short and dividing into two 
elongated style arms which bear stigmatic surfaces on their inner 
face; ovule orthotropous, solitary, with a basilar placenta and 
superior micropyle. Fruit an akene or ceriferous nut. Pericarp 


313 


filiform, free or connate at the base into a short stipe; anthers ovoid, 
erect, two celled, extrorse, showing longitudinal dehiscence. Pistil¬ 
late flowers in ovoid or ovoid-globular catkins. Gynsecium of two 
united carpels on a bract. Ovary sessile, unicellular, subtended 
by two lateral bracteoles which persist under the fruit, or by eight 


3M 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


covered with glandular emergences which secrete wax or fleshy 
emergences, smooth and lustrous or smooth, glandular. Seed 



Fig. 176.—Fructiferous branches of Myrica Caroliniensis (to left) and Myrica 
cerifera (to right) as they appear in early winter. The former species is deciduous, 
while the latter is evergreen. Collected by author at Wildwood, N. J., Dec. 16, 
1914. 

erect, exalbuminous, covered with a thin testa. Embryo straight, 
cotyledons thick, plano-convex; radicle short, superior. 

There are two distinct genera of this family, e.g., Myrica and 
Comptonia. 






TAXONOMY 


315 


Official drug 

Myrica N.F. 


Part used Botanical name Habitat 

Bark of root Myrica cerifera Eastern United 

States 



Pig. 177. —Fructiferous branch of Myrica Gale, showing mature pistillate 
catkins and nature of leaves. Collected at the south end of Peak’s Island in 
Casco Bay, Maine, September, 1913. 


IV. Order Juglandales. — Juglandace^e. —A family of apetalous 
exogenous trees—the walnut family—with alternate odd-pinnate 
leaves and monoecious flowers, the sterile in catkins, the fertile 
solitary or in a small cluster or spike. The fruit is a dry drupe with 





316 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


a bony nut-shell and a four-lobed seed. It embraces five genera, 
of which Carya (Hicoria) and Juglans are represented in the United 
States, and about 35 species. 

Official drug Part used Botanical name Habitat 

Juglans N. F. Inner root bark Juglans cinerea United States 

Betulacece or Birch Family. —A family of aromatic trees or shrubs 
distinguished by monoecious flowers with scaly bracts and astringent 
resinous bark. Differs from Fagacece by superior ovary and absence 
of cupule. To this family belong the hazelnuts, birches, alders, the 
ironwood, and the hornbean. 

Official drug Part used Botanical name Habitat 

- (Oleum Betulae) Volatile oil Betula lenta North America 

Methylis salicylas 

V. Order Fagales.— Fagacece or Beech Family ( Cupuliferce ).— 
Beeches, Chestnuts, Oaks, the trees of this family are found in the 
temperate forests of the eastern and western hemispheres and com¬ 
prise about 368 species. North America has over 50 species of oaks; 
2 species of Chestnuts; 1 species of beech and 1 species of golden¬ 
leaved chestnut. The most important American oaks used for 
building, for furniture, for cooperage, for wagons, for tanning leather 
etc. are white oak, Quercus alba; chestnut oak, Q. prinus, black oak, 
Q. velutina ; live oak, Q. virginiana; swamp white oak, Q. platanoides ; 
cow oak, Q. Michauxii, and the two Pacific coast oaks, Q. chyrso- 
lepis and post oak, Q. garryana. The uses of the fast disappearing 
Chestnut, Castanea dentata, are well known. The wood of the beech, 
Fagus grandifolia, is used for chairs, tool handles, plane stocks, shoe 
lasts and for fuel. The nuts (mast) fatten hogs and feed wild ani¬ 
mals and birds. The cork of commerce is obtained from the bark of 
Quercus Suber and Quercus occidentalis, plants indigenous to Spain 
and France. 

The above trees are all monoecious, that is the staminate (male) 
and pistillate (female) flowers are distinct from each other, but borne 
on the same tree. Most of the species are trees, a few oaks are 
shrubs. The leaves are simple, netted-veined and alternate. A 
pair of deciduous stipules are found at the base of the leaf-stalk 


TAXONOMY 


3 T 7 


(petiole). I he margins of the chestnut and beech leaves are sharply 
cut with large teeth. The leaves of the oaks divide the genus into 
two groups, viz.—the white oaks with rounded lobed leaves and 



Pig. 178 .—Quercus infectoria —Branch and nutgall. (Sayre.) 


annual acorn production, and the black oaks with sharp bristle- 
tipped lobes and biennial acorn production. The male flowers are 
in dangling heads (beech), or in catkins (chestnut and oaks). The 



3i8 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


male flowers have a united \perianth, which is 4-6 parted and en¬ 
closes an indefinite number of undivided stamens. The female 



Fig. 179.—Hop (Humulus l^pulus). A , portion of plant showing pistillate 
inflorescences; B, staminate inflorescence; C, rachis of pistillate inflorescence 
(“hop”). (Robbins.) 


flowers have a superior 6-parted perianth; the pistil consisting of 3 
carpels with a corresponding number of-stigmas. The ovary is 








TAXONOMY 


319 


3-6 celled and each cell has 2 pendulous ovules. The fruit is a one- 
seeded nut. The cup, or cupule, in the beech is 4 sided and covered 
externally wth weak spines and encloses two 3 sided seeds. The 
cupule in the chestnut forms the spiny bur, which splits into 4 valves 
at maturity, enclosing 3 nuts. The cupule in the oak is saucer, or 
cup-shaped, and encloses a single rounded nut, or acorn. The seeds 
are exalbuminous and the cotyledons are thick and fleshy, edible in 
the beech, chestnut and a few of the oaks. 

Official drug Part used Botanical name Habitat 

Galla Excrescence Quercus infectoria Europe 

Castanea N.F. Leaves Castanea dentata North America 

Quercus N.F. Bark Quercus alba North America 

VI. Order Urticales.— Ulmacece or Elm Family. —Forest trees 
indigenous to the temperate and tropical zones, charcterized by 
being woody plants, with pinnately-veined leaves and caducous 
stipules and without milky juice. Their flowers are unisexual or 
hermaphroditic with six or four parts to the perianth. Fruit a 
samara. 

Official drug Part used Botanical name Habitat 

Ulmus Inner bark Ulmus'fulva United States 

and Canada 

Moracece or Mulberry Family. —Mostly shrubs or trees, rarely 
herbs, perennials, many of them containing a milky juice, with 
small axillary, clustered or solitary unisexual flowers, variously 
colored; leaves ovate with serrate margin and having caducous 
stipules; fruit an akene enclosed by the perianth. 

Habitat 

| Asia 

Persia 

( Europe, Asia 
\ North America 

. VII. Order Santalales.— Santalacece or Sandalwood Family .— 
Herbs, shrubs or trees having entire exstipulate leaves, greenish 


Official drug 

Cannabis 


Ficus N.F. 
Humulus 


Part used 

Flowering tops of 
pistillate plant 

Fruit 

Strobile 


Botanical name 

Cannabis sativa 
Cannabis sativa 
var. indica 
Ficus Carica 
Humulus lupulus 


Lupulinum N.F. Glandular trichome Humulus lupulus 


3 20 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


flowers and oily seeds. Many are parasitic on the roots of other 
plants. 


Official drug Part used 

Oleum.Santali Volatile oil 

Santalum Album N.F. Heartwood 


Botanical name Habitat 

1 „ „ f India and East 

> Santalum album j Jiidies 



Fig. 180. —Aristolochia serpentaria. (Sayre.) 


VIII. Order Aristolochiales. —Aristolochiacece or Birthwort Family . 
—Herbs or twining semi-woody or woody plants, having more or less 
swollen nodes from which spring cordate or reniform or ovate leaves. 
Flowers regular (Asarum, etc.) or irregular {Aristolochia) often 
offensively smelling. Fruit a capsule. Seeds with copious albu¬ 
men and minute embryo. 







TAXONOMY 


3 2 1 


Official drug Part used 

Serpentaria Rhizome and roots 

Asarum N.F. Rhizome and roots 


Botanical name 


Habitat 


Aristolochia 

Serpentaria 

Aristolochia 

reticulata 

Asarum canadensis 


United States 
United States 



Fig. i8i. —Serpentaria—Cross-section of rhizome. (25 diam.) A, parenchyma 
of cortex; B, medullary ray; C, xylem; D, phloem; E, medulla. (Sayre.) 


IX. Order Polygonales.— Polygonacece Family. —Usually herbs 
( Polygonum , Rumex, etc.) rarely trees ( Coccoloba uvifera and C. 
platyclada) or shrubs {Muhlenbeckia, Brunnichia ) having strong 
vertical tap roots and spreading secondary roots more or less pro¬ 
vided with tannin compounds. Stems elongate, green, to woody, 
rarely flattened, leathery, phylloidal (. Muhlenbeckia platyclada ) still 
more rarely tendriliform {Antigonum leptopus). Leaves alternate 
rarely opposite or whorled {Eriogonum) , entire, rarely lobed {Rheum 
palmatum, Rumex acetosella ), petiolate, rarely sessile, and stipu¬ 
late. Stipules fused and forming a greenish membranous upgrowth 
{ocrea) which sheaths the stem. Inflorescence racemose with 
many dense scorpioid or helicoid cymes, which in some forms con¬ 
dense into single flowers. Flowers regular, pentamerous, with 
simple calyx, becoming trimerous with two whorls of three sepals 
each. Stamens varying from fifteen or twelve to nine or six more 
rarely to five, four, three to one {Kcenigia), hypogynous, more 
21 




PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


3 2 ? 


rarely by enlargement of receptacle and slight fusion of sepals, 
perigynous. Pistil tri- to bicarpellate often three- to two-sided, 
ovary one-celled with one ovule. Styles three, rarely two, radiating 
penicillate in wind-pollinated inconspicuous flowers, becoming con¬ 
densed knob-like in conspicuous insect-pollinated flowers. Fruit a 
triangular or biconvex akene often crowned by persistent styles and 
surrounded by persistent closely applied sepals. Seeds solitary, 
albuminous, with straight embryo, or in Rumex, curved embryo. 



Pig. 182. —Rhubarb (Rheum) flower, external view, median lengthwise section, 
and with perianth and stamens removed. ( Robbins , after Liirssen.) 


Official drug Part used 


Botanical name Habitat 

Rheum officinale 
Rheum palmatum 
and the variety China and 

tanguticum and Thibet 

probably other 
species ' 

Rumex crispus 
Rumex 
obtusifolius 


Rheum 


Rhizome 



Rumex N.F. Root 


Unofficial 


Bistorta 


Rhizome 


Polygonum 

Bistorta 


Europe and Asia 


X. Order Chenopodiales ( Centrospermce).—Chenopodiacece or 
Goosefoot Family .—Usually herbaceous halophytes or shore growers, 





TAXONOMY 


323 



growing also in any alkaline soil, more rarely shrubs {A triplex) or 
low trees (. Haloxylon ). 

Among them are several garden vegetables {Spinach, Beets, 
Mangels) and a number of weeds. Leaves alternate to opposite 
sometimes reduced to teeth, entire or lobed. Inflorescence spikes 


Fig. 183 .—Phytolacca decandra (in foreground), growing in damp woodland. 

or short racemes of condensed cymes. Flowers regular, usually 
small and greenish. They are either perfect {Beta), monoecious 
{Chenopodium), dioecious {Atriplex sp.), or polygamous {Kochia). 
Fruit a utricle. Seed albuminous. 



324 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Official drug Part used 

Oleum Chenopodii Volatile oil 

Saccharum Refined sugar 

Unofficial 

Chenopodium Fruit 


Botanical name Habitat 

Chenopodium United States 

anthelminticum 
Beta vulgaris Europe 


Chenopodium United States 
anthelminticum 


Phytolaccacece. —A family of apetalous trees, shrubs, or woody 
herbs—the pokeweed family—with alternate entire leaves, and 
flowers resembling those of the goosefoot family {Chenopodiacece ), 
but differing in having the several-celled ovary composed of carpels 
united in a ring, and forming a berry in fruit. It embraces 21 genera, 
and 55 species, tropical and sub-tropical. 


Official drug Part used Botanical name Habitat 

Phytolacca N.F. Root Phytolacca North America 

decandra 


XI. Order Ranales.— Magnoliacece or Magnolia Family. —Trees 
and shrubs having alternate leaves and single large flowers with 
calyx and corolla colored alike. Sepals and petals deciduous, an¬ 
thers adnate. Carpels and stamens numerous. Bark aromatic 
and bitter. Fruit a collection of follicles dehiscing dorsally. 

Official drug Part used Botanical name Habitat 

Oleum anisi Volatile oil Illicium verum South China 

Unofficial 

Winter’s Bark Bark Drimys Winteri South America 

Ranunculacece or Buttercup Family. —Herbs, rarely shrubs {Clema¬ 
tis) with acrid, poisonous, watery juices and with alternate, rarely 
opposite, simple, rarely compound, exstipulate leaves. Flowers 
pentamerous, regular to irregular, incomplete to complete, apose- 
palous and apopetalous. Sepals five—rarely more or less—green 
to petaloid, regular, passing to irregular (Larkspur, Monkshood). 
Petals none or five, regular to rarely irregular, often nectariferous 
and with nectariferous petals often variously transformed. Sta¬ 
mens indefinite, hypogynous. Pistil of many to few apocarpous 
carpels, each carpel with one to several ovules. Fruit a collection of 
achenes (. Ranunculus , Anemonella) ) or a collection of follicles 


TAXONOMY 


325 

(Columbine, Larkspur, Peony) or rarely a berry as in Baneberry 
(Actcea). Seeds albuminous. 



Fig. 184. —Above ground portion of Aconitum Napellus showing palmately- 
divided leaves and hooded flowers. 


Official drug 

Hydrastis 

Aconitum 

Staphisagria 

Cimicifuga 


Part used 


Botanical name 


Habitat 


Rhizome and roots Hydrastis canaden- Eastern United 


Tuberous root 


Seed 


Aconitum 

Napellus 


Delphinium 
Staphisagria 

Rhizome and root Cimicifuga 
racemosa 


States and Canada 
Europe, Asia, 
Western North 
America 
South Europe, 

Asia Minor 
North America, 
Europe, Asia 




326 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 



Fig. 185 .—Cimicifuga racemosa —Plant and rhizome. Note the pinnately de¬ 
compound leaf and the wand-like racemes which bear white flowers. ( Sayre .) 







TAXONOMY 


327 


Official drug Part used 


Botanical name 


Habitat 


Pulsatilla N.F. 


Coptis N.F. 
Adonis N.F. 


Delphinium N.F. 

Unofficial 

Aconiti Folia 


Helleborus 


Entire herb 


Entire herb 
Entire herb 


Seeds 


Anemone 
Pulsatilla 
Anemone 
Ludoviciana 
Anemone pratensis 
Coptis trifolia 

Adonis vernalis 
Delphinium 
Consolida 
Delphinium 
Ajacis 


► Europe 

United States and 
Canada 
Europe 

• Europe 


Leaves and flower Aconitum 
tops Napellus 

Rhizome and roots Helleborus niger 


Europe, Asia, 
western North 
America 
Alps 


Berberidacece or Barberry Family .—Herbs and woody plants with 
watery juices and alternate, or radical, simple or compound leaves 
often bearing spines or barbs, which give them a barbed appearance. 
Fruit a berry or capsule. 


Official drug 

Berberis N.F. 


Podophyllum 

Caulophyllum 

N.F. 


Part used Botanical name Habitat 


Rhizome and roots Berberis species of 
the Sect. 
Odostemon 

Rhizome and roots Podophyllum 
peltatum 

Rhizome and roots Caulophyllum 
thalictroides 


Western North 
America 

Eastern North 
America 
Eastern United 
States 


Menispermaceoe , or Moonseed Family .—Choripetalous woody, 
climbing, tropical plants with alternate, exstipulate, simple often 
peltate leaves. Flowers green to white. Fruit a one-seeded succu¬ 
lent drupe. Seeds albuminous. They usually contain tonic, nar¬ 
cotic or poisonous bitter principles. 






328 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 



Pig. i86 .—Podophyllum peltatum. Entire plant, above ground portion, and 
fruit. Note the flowering'stems bearing in each instance two one-sided leaves 
and a nodding flower from the forks. This plant also sends up from its rhizome 
flowerless stems each of which terminates in a 7 -9 lobed peltate leaf. 


Official drug 

Part used 

Botanical name 

Habitat 

Calumba 

Root 

Jateorhiza 

palmata 

East Africa 

Pareira N.F. 

Root 

Chondodendron 

tomentosum 

Peru and Brazil 

Cocculus N.F. 

Fruit 

Anamirta cocculus 

Asia 

Unofficial 

Menispermum 

Rhizome and roots 

Menispermum 

canadense 

United States and 
Canada 




TAXONOMY 


329 


Myristicaceoe or Nutmeg Family .—An order of apetalous trees 
comprising the single genus Myristica, of about 80 species. 

Myristica .—A large tropical genus of fragrant, apetlaous trees— 
the nutmegs—coextensive with the nutmeg family, having alternate, 


Fig. 


187 .—Jateorhiza palmata —Portion of vine. 

about a support as this plant climbs. 


Note tendril for winding 
(Sayre.) 



entire, often punctate leaves, small dicoeious regular flowers, and a 
succulent, two-valved, one-celled fruit with a solitary seed, usually 
covered by a fleshy arillus. 

M. fragrans, a handsome tree, 20 to 30 feet high, of the Malay 
archipelago, supplies the nutmegs and mace of commerce. 




■ - 4 


33 ° 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Official drug 

Myristica 
Oleum Myristicae 
Macis N.F. 


Part used 

Kernel of seed 
Volatile oil 
Arillode 


Botanical name 

Myristica fragrans 
Myristica fragrans 
Myristica fragrans 


Habitat 

Molluca Islands 



Fig. 188 .—Myristica fragrans —Branch and fruit. (Sayre.) 


Lauracea dr Spicebush Family .—Shrubs or trees of sub-tropical or 
tropical, rarely of temperate regions. Bark, wood and leaves rich 
in spicy aromatic hydrocarbon oils. Leaves alternate, simple, 
entire, often leathery shining. Inflorescenes usually cymose clus- 







TAXONOMY 


331 


ters. Flowers small, green, yellow or rarely whitish, hermaphrodite 
or more or less dioecious, regular calyx alone present as a floral whorl, 
of three to six small sepals. Stamens four to twelve in several rows 
of three to four each; anthers opening by recurved valves (valvular 



Fig. 189 .—Cinnamomum zeylanicum —Branch. (Sayre.) 


dehiscence). Pistil monocarpilary, ovary superior one-celled with 
solitary pendulous ovule, style simple with usually rounded stigma. 
Fruit a succulent berry (Spicebush and “Bacca laurea”) or a suc¬ 
culent drupe (Sassafras). 




332 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Official drug 

Part used 

Botanical name 

Habitat 

Camphora 

Ketone 

Cinnamomum 

Camphora 

Eastern Asia 

Sassafras 

Bark of root 

Sassafras 

variifolium 

North America 

Sassafras Medulla 
N.F. 

Pith 

Sassafras 

variifolium 

North America 

Cinnamomum 

Bark 

Cinnamomum 

Ceylon 

Zeylanicum 


Zeylanicum 


Cinnamomum 

Bark 

Undetermined 

China 

Saigonicum 


species of 
cinnamon 


Oleum Cinnamomi 

Unofficial 

Volatile oil 

Cinnamomum 

cassia 

China 

Co to 

Bark 

Sp. undetermined 

Bolivia 

Laurus 

Leaves 

Laurus nobilis 

Europe 

North America 

Fagot cassia 

Bark 

Cinnamomum 

Burmanii 

Asia 

Clove Bark 

Bark 

Dicypellium 

caryophyllatum 

Brazil 

Cassia Buds 

Immature fruit 

Cinnamomum 

Loureirii 

China 


XII. Order Rhceadales (Papaverales).— Papaver aceoe or Poppy 
Family. —Herbs or low shrubs. Root only, in some cases root and 
stem, and in still others the entire plant, traversed by anastomosing 
latex tubes that contain a milky juice varying from white (. Papaver ) 
or pale-yellow ( Chelidonium ) to red ( Bloodroot ). Latex tubes wholly 
confined to cortex or phloem but occasionally sending branches into 
the medullary rays, rarely into the pith of the plant. Leaves alter¬ 
nate varying from simple (. Platystemon ) to pinnatifid, pinnatipartite 
or even pinnately compound. Inflorescence varying from a loose 
raceme or panicle of cymes to a raceme of cymes or condensing until, 
as in Papaver, only one large terminal flower is left. Flowers regular, 
tetramerous or dimerous. Sepals typically two more rarely three. 
Petals typically four, more rarely six. Stamens indefinite in most 
forms hypogynous except in California Poppy ( Eschscholtzia ) where 
hypogyny is modified into perigyny. Pistil of sixteen to four, rarely 
two carpels generally fused together.* Placenta parietal. Ovules 





TAXONOMY 


333 


numerous, anatropous, Fruit a capsule except in Platystemon 
which has follicles. Seeds richly albuminous. 



Fig. 190. — Papaver pomniferum —Flowering branch and fruit. (Sayre.) 


Official drug 
Opium 

Sanguinaria 

Unofficial 

Chelidonium 

Maw seed 


Part used 
Air-dried milky 
exudate 


Entire flowering 
plant 
Seeds 


Botanical name 

Papaver somni- 
ferum and its 
var. album 


Chelidonium 

majus 

Papaver somni- 
ferum album 


Habitat 

Eastern Mediter¬ 
ranean countries 

United States and 
Canada 

United States and 
Canada 
vide supra 


Rhizome and roots Sanguinaria 
canadensis 


334 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Fumariacece or Fumitory Family .—Delicate herbs rarely shrubs 
containing milky watery to watery latex. Leaves more or less 
compound. Inflorescence a raceme or spike. Flowers irregular, 
zygomorphic, one or both of the petals of which having a spur. 
Fruit a one-chambered capsule. Seeds albuminous. Idioblasts 
common. 



Fig. 191.—Transverse 
section of flower of 
Poppy. (Sayre.) 



Fig. 192. —Gyne- 
cium of Poppy, with 
one stamen remaining. 
(Sayre.) 



Fig. 193. —Trans¬ 
verse section of ovary 
of Poppy. (Sayre.) 


Official drug Part used Botanical name Habitat 

f Tubers of Dicentra (Bicuculla) 

Corydalis N.F. ) canadensis 

^ Bulbs of Dicentra Cucullaria 

Crucifer oe or Mustard Family. —Herbs, rarely shrubs, mostly of 
temperate regions. Stem and branches upright or diffuse spreading 
( Arabis ). Leaves alternate, simple rarely compound, exstipulate, 
entire or toothed, often more or less hairy. Inflorescence at first 
a corymb or shortened raceme, later elongating into a loose raceme. 
Bracts at base rarely reduced, usually absent. Flowers regular— 
rarely irregular (Candytuft)—tetramerous. Sepals four, green, 
equal or two laterals, at times pouched as nectar receptacles. Petals 
four, yellow to white or to pink or purple, cruciform, often divisible 
into claw and blade. Stamens six to four long anteroposterior, 
two short lateral and often with nectar knobs or discs, hence termed 
tetradynamous, insertion hypogynous. Pistil syncarpous bicar- 
pellate, superior, carpels lateral. Ovary one-celled but falsely 
two-celled by a placental replum, style simple, stigma rounded or 
bifid or bilobed. Ovules several, rarely few, attached to marginal 


l United States and 
[ Canada 


TAXONOMY 


335 


placenta. Fruit a capsule—rarely indehiscent—bursting lengthwise 
by two valves. Seeds exalbuminous. 


Official drug 

Part used 

Botanical name 

Habitat 

Sinapis Alba 

Seed 

Sinapis alba 

Europe and Asia 

Sinapis Nigra 

Unofficial drug 

Seed 

Brassica nigra 

Europe and Asia 

Semenae Rapae 

Seed 

Brassica napus 

Europe and Asia 



Fig. 194 .—Brassica nigra —Branch. {Sayre.) 


XIII. Order Sarraceniales. —Droseracece or Sundew Family .— 
Herbs ( Drosera , Dionaea, etc.) rarely shrubs (Roridula of South 
Africa), growing in bogs or swamps or purely aquatic in habit 
(. Aldrovanda ). Leaves, either rosettes or more or less scattered in 
alternate fashion over stem, usually glandular-hairy or sensitive- 
hairy and insectivorous. Inflorescence a loose raceme or cymose 



PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 



Fig. 195. —Drosera rotundifolia. Production of a young plant from the leaf of an 
older plant. (Gager.) 

Official drug Part used Botanical origin Habitat 

{ Drosera rotundifolia ) 

Drosera intermedia l 1 as ern an west- 
Drosera longifolia j Hem,spheres 

XIV. Order Rosales.— Saxifragacece or Saxifrage Family .— 
Herbs ( Saxifraga , Mitella, etc.) or shrubs {Hydrangea, Ribes, 
Philadelphus, etc.) rich in tannin content, with opposite or alter¬ 
nate leaves usually devoid of stipules. Both stamens and petals are 
generally inserted on the calyx. Fruit a follicle, capsule, or berry. 
Seeds with copious albumen. 


umbel. Flowers regular, pentamerous; sepals five, aposepalous 
green; petals apopetalous, varying from white to whitish-pink, 
pink scarlet, purple to bluish-purple; stamens varying from fifteen 
to five hypogymous pistil syncarpous of five to three, rarely fewer 
carpels. Fruit a capsule. Seeds albuminous. 




TAXONOMY 


337 


Official drug Part used Botanical name Habitat 

Hydrangea N.F. Rhizome and roots Hydrangea United States 

arborescens 

Hamamelidacoe or Witchazel Family .—Shrubs or small or large 
trees. Leaves, simple, alternate and pinnately veined; stipules 
deciduous to caducous, paired and slightly fused at the bases of 



Fig, 196 .—Liquidambar orientalis —Branch. ( Sayre .) 


petioles. Flowers frequently yellow to yellowish-white, in axillary 
clusters or heads or spikes, hermaphrodite or monoecious; sepals 
and petals five to four rarely indefinite, superior (petals absent in 
Fothergilla ); stamens twice as many as the petals but the outer row 
alone fertile, the inner row being more or less barren and scale-like; 
gynoecium of two carpels united below. Fruit a two-beaked, two- 
22 


338 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 



Pig. 197. —Hamamelis virginiana. Upper figure shows this shrub as it ap¬ 
pears in autumn alter the leaves have fallen. Note that the plant is in blossom. 
Lower figure shows a flowering branch from the same plant. The bright yellow 
flowers occur in axillary clusters appearing at the same time as the ripening of 
fruits from blossoms of the previous year. 











TAXONOMY 339 

celled woody capsule dehiscing at the summit, with a bony seed 
in each cell, or several, only one or two of them ripening. 


Official drug 

Sty rax 

Hamamelidis 
Folia N.F. 


Part used Botanical name 

Balsam from wood Liquidambar 
and inner bark orientalis 

Leaves Hamamelis 

virginiana 


Habitat 

The Levant 

United States and 
Canada 


Rosacea or Rose Family. —Herbs, shrubs, or trees mostly of 
temperate regions. Stem and branches upright or creeping (Straw¬ 
berry, Cinquefoil), herbaceous to woody. Leaves alternate, stipu¬ 
late (stipules green persistent to scaly deciduous), compound 
condensing to “simple.” Flowers regular, pentamerous; sepals and 
petals five—rarely four—inferior to ovary becoming by stages super¬ 
ior to it. Sepals green—at times with epicalyx (Strawberry, Cinque¬ 
foil, etc.), persistent round fruit. Petals usually yellow to white or 
to pink, crimson, rarely purple, rosaceous, deciduous. Stamens in¬ 
definite, perigynous (Strawberry, etc.), to semi-epigynous (Rose, 
Peach, etc.), and epigynous (Apple, Pear). Pistil apocarpous with 
many (Strawberry, Rose) carpels or fewer to five (Apple), or two 
to one (Plum, Cherry), becoming falsely fused by union with up- 
growing receptacle (Hawthorn, Apple). Fruit a collection of achenes 
on dry (Cinquefoil) or succulent receptacle (Strawberry), or dry 
follicles (Bridal Wreath), or drupels (Blackberry), or a drupe (Peach, 
Plum, Cherry), or a pome (Apple ; Pear). Seeds exalbuminous 
embryo filling seed cavity. 


Official drug Part used 

Amygdala Dulcis Seed 

Prunus Virginiana Bark 

Rubus N.F. Bark of rhizome 


Quillaja N.F. 
Brayera N.F. 

Rosa Gallica 


Bark 

Panicles of pistil¬ 
late flowers 
Petals 


Botanical name 

Prunus amygdalus 
variety dulcis 
Prunus serotina 

Rubus villosus, R. 
cuneifolius, and 
R. nigrobaccus 
Quillaja Saponaria 
Hagenia abyssinica 

Rosa gallica 


Habitat 

Asia 

United States and 
-Canada 
United States 

Chile and Peru 
Abyssinia 

Southern Europe 


340 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Official drug 

Rubi Fructus 
N.F. 

Succus Pomorum 
N.F. 

Rubi Idaei 
Fructus N.F. 
Prunum N.F. 
Amygdala Amara 


Part used 

Fresh fruit 

Juice of Fruit 

Juice of Fruit 

Fruit 

Seed 


Botanical name 

Rubus nigrobaccus 
and Rubus 
villosus 
Pyrus Malus 
(cyltiv. var’s.) 
Rubus Idaeus and 
Rubus strigosus 
Prunus domestica 
Prunus amygdalus 
var. amara. 


Habitat 

United States 


Cultivated 

Europe and Asia 

Southern Europe 
Asia Minor, Persia, 
Syria 



Fig. 198. —Quillaja saponaria —Branch. (Sayre.) 






TAXONOMY 


341 


Unofficial drug 

Cydonium 
Rosa Centifolia 
Rosa Canina 
Tormentilla 


Part used 

Seed 

Petals 

Spurious Fruit 
Rhizome 


Botanical name 

Cydonia vulgaris 
Rosa centifolia 
Rosa canina 
Potentilla 
silvestris 


Habitat 

Cultivated widely 
Western Asia 
Europe 

Europe and Asia 



Fig. 199 .—Prunus domeslica —Fruiting branch and flowering branch. (Sayre.) 

Leguminosce or Pea Family (Fabacece ).—Herbs, shrubs or trees 
of all regions, with tubercled roots. Stem usually erect, rarely 
creeping ( Trifolium repens). Leaves alternate, compound—rarely 
simple—stipulate, sometimes tendriliform or reduced to phylloid 
petioles {Acacia sp.). Inflorescence a raceme, at times, condensed 
almost to a head or capitulum (Sp. of clover, Mimosa, etc.). Flowers 
pentamerous (rarely four), regular {Mimosece), to irregular {Ccesal- 
pinece, Papilionacece). Sepals five united, green; petals five (rarely 
four) variously related, in Papilionaceae one superior, external, pos¬ 
terior—standard or vexillum, two lateral forms wings or alae, two 
inferior internal and anterior slightly adherent form keel. Stamens 



342 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


ten to four, free or in Papilionaceae united by filaments into a mona- 
delphous (ten) or a diadelphous (nine to one) tube, inserted peri- 
gynously. Pistil monocarpellary, ovary with sutural placentation, 
style simple. Seeds exalbuminous. 



Fig. 200. — Glycyrrhi*a glabra— Branch. (Sayre.) 

Official drug Part used Botanical name Habitat 

Acacia Gummy exudation Acacia Senegal Africa 

and other African 
. species 

Tragacantha Gummy exudation Astragalus gum- Asia 

mifer and other 
Asiatic species 





TAXONOMY 


343 


Official drug 
Balsamum 
Peruvianum 
Balsamum 
Tolutanum 
Haematoxylon 
N.F. 

Santalum Rubrum Heartwood 


Part used Botanical name Habitat 

Balsam Toluifera Pereirse Central America 


Balsam 


Columbia 


Heartwood 


indo China 


Glycyrrhiza 


Senna 

Cassia Fistula 
N.F. 


Toluifera 
Balsamum 

Haematoxylon Central America 
campechianum 
Pterocarpus 
santalinus 

f Glycyrrhiza glabra Spain and France 
Rhizome and roots < Glycyrrhiza Southwestern 

^ glandulifera Asia, Russia 

f Cassia acutifolia Egypt 
l Cassia angustifolia Arabia and India 
Cathartocarpus India 

fistula 


Leaflets 

Fruit 




344 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Official drug 

Part used 

Botanical name 

Habitat 

Tamarindus N.F. 

Pulp of fruit 

Tamarindus indica 

Tropical Africa 

Copaiba 

Oleoresin 

Copaiba species 

South America 

Chrysarobinum 

Neutral principle 

Vouacapoua 

Araroba 

Brazil 

Physostigma 

Seed 

Physostigma 

Africa 



^venenosum 


Kino 

Inspissated juice 

Pterocarpus 

Marsupium 

India and Ceylon 

Scoparius N.F. 

Tops 

Cytisus scoparius 

Europe 

Trifolium N.F. 

Inflorescence 

Trifolium pratense 

United States 

Galega N.F. 

Flowering tops 

Galega officinalis 

Southern Europe 

Baptisia N.F. 

Roots 

Baptisia tinctoria 

Eastern United 
States and 

Canada 



Krameria triandra 

Peru and Bolivia 



Krameria Ixina 

United States of 

Krameria N.F. 

Root 

Krameria argentea 

Colombia, Brazil 
Brazil 

Unofficial 




Foenum graecum 

Seed 

Trigonella 

Mediterranean 



Foenum-graecum 

region 

Piscidia 

Bark 

Piscidia Erythrina 

West Indies 

Indigo 

Coloring matter 

Indigofera tinctoria 

India 

Melilotus 

Leaves and flower¬ 

Melilotus officinalis 

Europe 


ing tops 



Soy Bean 

Seeds 

Glycine hispida 

United States and 
Europe 

Abrus 

Seeds 

Abrus precatorious 

Tropics and sub¬ 
tropics 

Catechu 

Extract 

Acacia Catechu 

India 

Mucuna 

Hairs from fruits 

Mucuna pruriens 

East and West 
Indies 


XV. Order Geraniales (Gruinales). —Geraniacece or Geranium 
Family. —Herbaceous, rarely semi-succulent sub-shrubby plants. 
Stems cylindrical, often hairy or glandular hairy. Leaves alternate 
to opposite, stipulate; venation from pinnate to palmate, so leaf 
shape from ovate to pinnatifid to pinnatipartite to sub-palmatifid to 
palmatipartite to compound palmate. Inflorescence either a diche- 
sial or scorpioid cyme. Flowers regular pentamerous {Geranium) 



TAXONOMY 


345 


to irregular pentamerous {Pelargonium)] sepals five, aposepalous; 
petals five, apopetalous, varying in color from greenish-white or 
pink-red to scarlet, scarlet-crimson to crimson-purple; stamens with 
anthers ten or five, hypogynous or inserted into slightly developed 
hypogynous disc; pistil pentacarpellary, ovary five-celled with two, 



2 


Fig. 202. —Physostigma venenosum —Portion of plant and fruit. (Sayre.) 

rarely one ovule in each cell, styles elongate, fused round a stylar 
column of receptacle then continued as a stylar tip which splits into 
five stigmatic surfaces. Fruit a regma rarely a simple capsule. 
Regma splits into five recurved carpels, each then dehiscing to set 
free two or one seeds. Seeds exalbuminous. 










346 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Official drug 
Geranium N.F. 
Unofficial 

Oil of Rose ) 
Geranium / 


Part used Botanical name Habitat 

Rhizome Geranium maculatum North America. 


Volatile oil 


Pelargonium 
odoratissimum 
Pelargonium Radula 
Pelargonium 
capita turn 


Mediterranean 

regions 



Linaceoe or Flax Family .—Herbs with slender stems and alter¬ 
nate, simple, narrow leaves. Inflorescence cymose with regular 
pentamerous flowers; pistil five-carpelled with a five-celled ovary 
containing two ovules in each cavity and having a single style with 
knob-like stigma. While the flower is still in bud condition or soon 
after, there commences an ingrowth of the mid-rib of each carpel 






TAXONOMY 


347 


which proceeds until, when plant is in fruit, there are formed io cavi¬ 
ties each enclosing a seed. Seeds, anatropous, mucilaginous, flat¬ 
tened, containing a large embryo and slight albumen. 


Official drug 

Linum 
Oeum Lini 


Part used Botanical name Habitat 

Seeds Linum usitatissimum ) Temperate 

Fixed oil Linum usitatissimum / regions 



Fig. 204.—Flax. A, floral diagram— c, calyx; co, corolla; s, stamens; p, pistil. 
B, median lengthwise section of flower. C, calyx and corolla removed. D, 
fruit, external view. E, cross-section of fruit. (Robbins.) 


Erythroxylaceos or Coca Family .—Shrubs ( Erythroxylon ) or trees 
with alternate, simple, entire, glabrous and pinnately veined leaves. 
Flowers regular, hermaphroditic, each with five sepals, five hypogy- 
nous petals, ten stamens and a two- to three-celled ovary subtend- 






348 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


ing three styles, each with a capitate stigma. Fruit an ovoid, angular, 
one celled drupe containing a single seed. 


Official drug Part used 

Cocaina Alkaloid 

Unofficial 

Coca Leaves 


Botanical origin Habitat 

Erythroxylon Coca Peru and Bolivia 
and its varieties 

Erythroxylon Coca Peru and Bolivia 
and its varieties 



Fig. 205.— Guaiacum sanctum —Flowering branch. (Sayre.) 


Zygophyllacece or Caltrop Family. —Herbs, shrubs or trees {Guaia¬ 
cum) having jointed, often divaricate branches. Leaves usually 
opposite, stipulate and compound. Flowers regular or irregular, 





TAXONOMY 


349 

pentamerous, white, yellow, red or blue ( G. officinale). Fruit a 
capsule. 


Official drug 

Guaiacum 


Part used Botanical origin 


Habitat 


Guaiaci Lignum Heartwood 
N. F. 


Resin of wood officinale f Tropical and sub- 

l Guaiacum sanctum l tropical America 


G. officinale and G. Tropical and sub¬ 
sanctum tropical America 



Rutacece or Rue Family. —Herbs (. Ruta , Diosma, Barosma) or 
shrubs (Xanthoxylum) or trees (Citrus). Stems upright, often wiry 
xerophytic, in sub-family Rutece, elongated and spiny in sub-family 
Zanthoxyleoe, woody and green in sub-family— Aurantiece. Leaves 
alternate or oppostite, simple (Ruta), rarely whorled (Pilocarpus) or 






35° 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


pinnatifid, as in Ruta graveolens, or pinnate, as lower parts of Ruta 
graveolens, becoming reduced pinnate in Citrus Aurantium. Leaves 

exstipulate or with spiny stipules 
(.Xaythoxylum ). Stems and leaves 
abound in more or less sunken 
glands. Flowers pentamerous, vary¬ 
ing in color from yellow in Ruta to 
white in Citrus to pink ( Barosma 
betulina ) or pink crimson as in some 
Barosma and Diosma species, rarely 
to pinkish-purple (. Pilocarpus ); 
sepals five, aposepalous becoming in 
Citrus more or less synsepalous; 
petals five, apopetalus becoming 
more or less synpetalous and tubular 
{Correa grandiflora) ; stamens five, 
simple or with expanded bases, 
lobed, or lobes developed as stami- 
nal stipules and more or less split 
{Citrus)\ pistil of ten, five, three or 
two carpels, ovary as many-celled. 
Fruit a capsule ( Dittany , Xanthoxy- 
lum), berry {Citrus) or rarely a 
samara {Ptelea). Seeds albuminous 
or exalbuminous. Many of the 
plants contain volatile oils in their 
secretory cavities. 



Fig. 207. —Barosma betulina— 
Branch and flower. (Sayre.) 


Official drug 

Part used 

Botanical origin 

Habitat 

Aurantii Dulcis 

Outer rind of 

Citrus Aurantium 

Sub-tropics 

Cortex 

ripe fruit 

sinensis 


Aurantii Amari 

Rind of fruit 

Citrus Aurantium 

Northern India 

Cortex 


amara 


Limonis Cortex 

Outer rind of 

Citrus medica 

Northern India 


ripe fruit 

Limonum 




Pilocarpus Jaborandi 

Pilocarpus 

Leaflets \ 

1 Pilocarpus 
[ microphyllus 

j Brazil 

Buchu 

Leaves j 

Barosma betulina 
l and B.serratifolia 

Cape Colony 





TAXONOMY 


351 


Official drug Part used 


X 

Xanthoxylum Bark 


Oleum Bergamottae Volatile oil 


N.F. 

Oleum Aurantii 

Volatile oil 

Florum N.F. 
Succus Citri N.F. 

Juice 

Xanthoxyli 
Fructus N.F. 

| Capsules 

Unofficial 


Ruta 

Leaves 

Ptelea 

Bark of root 

Belae Fructus 

Unripe fruit 


Botanical origin 

Xanthoxylum 
americanum 
Xanthoxylum 
Clava-Herculis 
Citrus Aurantium 
Bergamia 
Citrus Aurantium 
amara 

Citrus medica acida 
Xanthoxylum 
americanum 
Xanthoxylum 
Clava-Herculis 


Habitat 

Northern United 
States 

Southern United 
States 

France, Italy 
Northern India 
Asia 

Northern 
United States 
Southern 
United States 


Ruta graveolens 
Ptelea trifoliata 
yEgle Marmelos 


Southern Europe 
North America 
Malabar, 
Coromandel 


Simarubacea or Ailanthus Family. —A family of chiefly tropical 
shrubs or trees containing bitter principles. The leaves are alter¬ 
nate and pinnate. The flowers are dioecious or polygamous and 
arranged in axillary panicles (. Picrasma excelsa ) or racemes (< Quassia 
amara). The plants are distinguished from those of the Rutacece 
by the absence, of secretory cavities. 


Official drug Part used 

Quassia Wood 

Unofficial 

Simaruba Bark of root 


Botanical origin Habitat 

( Picrasma excelsa West Indies 

l Quassia amara Surinam 

f Simaruba officinalis South America 

l Simaruba amara Central America, 

Bahamas and 
Florida 


Burseracece or Myrrh Family. —Shrubs and trees of tropical climes 
having secretion reservoirs in their bark. Leaves alternate and 
compound. Flowers small, regular and hermaphrodite, arranged in 
racemes or panicles. Fruit a drupe. 




352 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Official drug Part used Botanical origin Habitat 

Myrrha Gum resin Commiphora species East Africa and 

Arabia * 

Unofficial 

Olibanum Gum resin Boswellia carterii East Africa and 

Arabia 



Pig. 208. —Picrasma excelsa —Branch. (Sayre.) 


Meliacece or Mahogany Family .—Tropical trees or shrubs with 
wood often hard, colored and odoriferous. Leaves alternate, ex- 





TAXONOMY 


3*53 

stipulate, pinnately compound, rarely simple and entire. Inflor¬ 
escence a terminal or axillary raceme. Flowers hermaphrodite or 
rarely polygamo-dioecious, regular; sepals five to four, small; petals 
usually five to four, hypogynous; stamens generally ten to eight 



Fig. 209 .—Commiphora myrrha —Branch. ( Sayre .) 

rarely five, very rarely twenty to sixteen, inserted outside the base 
of the hypogynous disc; filaments united into a tube; carpels usually 
five to three; style simple; ovary free, usually five-to three-celled. 
Fruit a drupe ( Melia ), berry ( Vavaea ), or capsule [Cedrella). Seeds 
exalbuminous or with fleshy albumen. 

23 


354 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Official drug Part used Botanical origin Habitat 

Cocillana N.F. Bark Guarea Rusbyi Bolivia 

Polygalacece or Milkwort Family .—Herbs or shrubsr with upright, 
herbaceous to woody stems often branching profusely, the branches 



occasionally becoming geotropic or subterranean and bearing 
cleistogamous flowers. Leaves simple, often lanceolate or linear, 
exstipulate, alternate. Inflorescence a raceme, spike {Polygala 




TAXONOMY 


355 


Senega) or head {P. lutea). Flowers irregular, hermaphroditic 
with commonly eight stamens. Fruit a two-celled capsule (P. 
Senega), rarely a drupe or samara. Pollen grains barrel-shaped. 

Official drug Part used Botanical origin Habitat 

Senega Root * Polygala Senega United States and 

Canada 

Euphorbiacece or Spurge Family. —Often herbaceous, more rarely 
shrubby, rather seldom arborescent plants. Stem, leaves and other 
parts in several genera traversed by latex canals that are either 
ramifying cells {Euphorbias) or laticiferous vessels ( Manihot , 
Hevea, etc.) or rows of laticiferous sacs {Micrandra) and contain 
a white latex with acrid often poisonous contents or alkaloid or 
hydrocarbon, at times, rubber contents. Leaves alternate, exstipu- 
late to stipulate, simple to pinnate or palmate. Inflorescence 
cymose. Flowers usually as in Ricinus, etc, pentamerous, diclin¬ 
ous; sepals five, green, aposepalous, becoming rudimentary or ab¬ 
sent in Anthostema and Euphorbia. Petals none or five more or less 
petaloid; stamens numerous to ten to five or on ^{Euphorbia)', 
pistil in pistillate flowers rarely of twenty to ten apocarpous or 
loosely syncarpous carpels (Sandbox tree), commonly of three syn- 
carpous carpels with distinct radiate styles; ovary as many-celled 
as carpels with two to one ovules in each cell. Fruit a tricoccoid 
regma or capsule, rarely winged, indehiscent, nut-like. Seeds with 
oily endosperm. Flowers at times surrounded and subtended by 
more or less petaloid and expanded bracts and bracteoles. 


Official name 

Part used 

Botanical origin 

Habitat 

Euphorbia 
Pilalifera N.F. 

Herb 

Euphorbia piluliferaTropics and sub¬ 
tropics 

Stillingia 

Root 

Stillingia sylvatica 

Southern United 
States 

Oleum Ricini 

Volatile oil 

Ricinus communis 

Asia and Africa 

Oleum Tiglii 

Volatile oil 

Croton tiglium 

Asia 

Cascarilla N.F. 
Unofficial 

Bark 

Croton Eluteria 

West Indies 

Tapioca 

Starch 

Manihot utilissima 

South America 

Kamala 

Hairs of capsule 

Mallotus 

philippinensis 

Asia 

Elastica 

Prepared latex 

Hevea braziliensis 
and other species 

Brazil 


356 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


XVI. Order Sapindales.— Anacardiaceoe or Sumac Family .— 
Shrubs or trees producing in stems and leaves secretion contents 
that are either acrid watery or acrid opalescent or white viscid, 
viscid acrid and poisonous. Leaves alternate, rarely opposite, 
simple ( Rhus Cotinus), three-foliate ( Rhus toxicodendron ) or pinnate 
{Rhus glabra , R. venenata , etc.). Inflorescence frequently terminal 
and composed of racemes or cymes, often reduced to a simple raceme. 
Flowers small, clustered, green, greenish-white to greenish-yellow; 
sepals five, rarely six or four green, small; petals five smaller than 
sepals; stamens equal in number to the petals and alternate, rarely 
fewer, sometimes double in number, rarely indefinite, inserted 
hypogynously or upon an enlarged disc that surrounds or swells 
up between stamens and pistil; pistil monocarpellary more rarely 
bicarpellary, very rarely as in Spondiece of ten to five carpels, 
ovary one-celled.with single ovule. Fruit a drupe. Seeds exalbumi- 
nous with large embryo filling seed cavity. 

Official drug Part used Botanical origin Habitat 


Rhus Glabra N.F. 

Ripe fruits 

Rhus glabra 

Canada and 
United States 

Mastiche N.F. 

Unofficial 

Concrete resin¬ 
ous exudate 

Pistacia Lentiscus 

Grecian 

Archipelago 

Chinese Galls 

Excrescences 

Rhus semialata 

China 

Japanese Galls 

Excrescences 

Rhus japonica 

Japan 

Rhus Typhina 

Ripe fruits 

Rhus typhina 

United States 

Acajou Gum 

Gum 

Anacardium 

occidentale 

West Indies 

Pistachio 

Seeds 

Pistacia vera 

Western Asia 

Anacardium 

Fruit 

Anacardium 

occidentale 

West Indies 

Rhus 

Toxicodendron 

Fresh leaflets 

Rhus toxicodendron United States 


Celastraceoe or Staff Tree Family. —Shrubs {Euonymus) } or shrubby 
climbers {Celastrus).. Leaves alternate, rarely opposite, simple, en¬ 
tire or toothed. Inflorescence of axillary cymes or terminal racemes. 
Flowers perfect ( Euonymus , Pachistima ) or polygamo-dioecious 
{Cleastrus) greenish {Celastrus), greenish or yellowish-white {Euony¬ 
mus Europoeus ), greenish-purple {Euonymus americanus) to dark- 


TAXONOMY 


357 


purple (Euonymus atropurpureus ); calyx four to five-lobed; corolla of 
four to five petals; stamens four to five, perigynous, inserted on a disc, 
which fills the base of the calyx and sometimes covers the ovary; 
ovary three- to five-celled. Fruit a two-to five-celled capsule. 
Seeds albuminous with fleshy succulent reddish aril {Euonymus, 
Celastrus) or white membranous aril {Pachistima). 



Pig. 21 i. —Euonymus atropurpureus. Flowering branch to left; fruiting branch 




to right. 


Official drug 

Part used 

Botanical origin 

Habitat 

Euonymus N.F. 

Bark of root 

Euonymus 

atropurpureus 

United States 




358 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 



Sapindacece or Soapwort Family. —Trees, shrubs, undershrubs or 
rarely herbs of tropical climes containing the glucoside saponin. 
Stem erect or climbing (. Paullinia) often provided with tendrils. 
Leaves commonly alternate and compound. Flowers in racemes 
or panicles (. Paullinia ), perfect or polygamo-dioecious, yellowish in 


Pig. 212. —Cross section through root-bark of Eupnymus atropurpureus. 
Note the two broad dome-shaped phloem patches, one on either side of a wedge- 
shaped primary medullary ray. 

Paullinia Cupana. Fruit a capsule (P. Cupana ), samara, drupe or 


berry. Seeds exalbuminous. 



Official drug 

Part used 

Botanical origin 

Habitat 

Guarana 

Dried Paste, 
chiefly of 
crushed seeds 

. Paullinia Cupana 

Brazil 


Aceracece or Maple Family. —Chiefly trees, occasionally shrubs, of 
temperate regions with watery sap. Leaves opposite, simple and 


ck 

k 

P 


ph 



TAXONOMY 


359 


palmately lobed, cleft (Acer) or pinnate (Negundo). Inflorescence 
a raceme condensing in some species to a capitulum of cymes. 
Flowers small, regular, polygamous or dioecious; sepals five to four 
green; petals none or five, variously colored; stamens usually eight, 
hypogynous or perigynous; nectar disc around stamens or between 
them and pistil; pistil bicarpellary with two-celled ovary. Fruit a 
samara. Seeds green, exalbuminous with coiled or folded embryo 
and long thin cotyledons. 

Unofficial drug Part used Botanical orign Habitat 

Acer Spicatum Bark Acer spicatum United States 

XVII. Order Rhamnales.— Rhamnacex or Buckthorn Family .— 
Shrubs or low trees usually of branching or spreading habit. 
Branches either cylindric or long green or hardened, checked back 
and spinescent, occasionally, especially flowering branches develop¬ 
ing tendrils for support. Leaves simple, usually alternate. Flowers 
hermaphrodite or more or less diclinous, pentamerous to tetramer- 
ous, greenish to greenish-yellow to yellowish-white; sepals five to 
four; petals five to four alternating with sepals; stamens five oppo¬ 
site the petals, perigynous; pistil either free in center of receptacular 
cup or more or less fused with it and so semi-inferior, ovary typically 
three-celled becoming rarely four-celled with two to one atropous 
ovules in each cavity. Fruit of three indehiscent cocci, each en¬ 
closing a single albuminous seed with straight embryo imbedded 
in albumen. 


Official drug 

Parts used 

Botanical origin 

Habitat 

Cascara Sagrada 

Bark 

Rhamnus Purshiana 

Northern Cali¬ 
fornia to south¬ 
western British 
America 

Frangula 

Bark 

Rhamnus Frangula 

Europe 

Rhamnus 
Cathartica N.F. 

Fruit 

Rhamnus cathartica 

Asia and Africa 


Vitacece or Grape Family .—Rarely tall herbaceous, usually shrubby 
and climbing, more rarely shrubby upright plants. Stems rarely 
short more usually elongate, feeble, rather brittle, climbing by 
tendrils which represent modified inflorescence shoots. Leaves 


360 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


alternate, simple to lobed (either pinnately or more often palmately) 
to compound-pinnate or palmate. Perfect graded series of lanceo¬ 
late leaves with pinnate veining to palmate veining; from pinnately 
veined to compound-pinnate; from palmately veined to compound- 



Fig. 213 .—Rhamnus frangula —Branch. (Sayre.) 


palmate. Stipules greenish to membi'anous or none. Flowers in 
racemes of compressed cymes, hermaphrodite or diclinous, nearly 
always small, clustered, green to greenish-yellow or greenish-white, 
rarely otherwise; sepals five, rarely four, small to minute (mere 
rim of receptacle) more or less persistent. Petals five, deciduous to 






TAXONOMY 


36 1 

caducous, typically distinct, in Vitis united by their tips into calyp- 
troform corolla, so in June, as Grape Vine flowers expand, corolla 
splits at base into five lobes that separate below, being attached at 
tips, while whole becomes tumbled off by lengthening stamens. 
Pistil bicarpellate. Ovary two-celled, superior at or most sub¬ 
inferior. Ovules two to one, erect. Style short often more or less 
thickened with terminal, capitate, slightly two-lobed stigmas. 
Stamens equal to petals or sepals and opposite petals. Receptacle 
internal to stamens, often expanded into nectariferous girdle or, in 
Vitis, into receptacular knobs alternating with stamens. Fruit 
a berry rarely six- to three-celled, typically two-celled and with 
two to one seeds in each cavity. Seeds like ovules, erect, with bony 
testa. Embryo small, imbedded at base of cartilaginous albumen. 

Official drug Part used Botanical origin Habitat 

Vinura Xericum Fermented juice Vitis species Cultivated 

N.F. of ripe fruit (cultivated) 

XVIII. Order Malvales.— SterculiacecB or Cola Family. —Rarely 
kerbs, usually shrubs or tall, often heavy trees with soft wood and 
broad annual rings. The cambium, in developing bast, produces 
one, two, three, four, or five alternating layers of hard and soft 
bast which in some species of this as well as the Tiliacex family 
form long finger-like processes pushing out into the cortex. Leaves 
alternate, sometimes simple and pinnately veined or passing to 
palmately veined or palmately. compound. Flowers hermaphrodite; 
sepals five, sometimes surrounded by bracteoles forming an epicalyx; 
petals usually five; stamens typically five hypogynous, opposite 
petals, distinct or slightly fused in monadelphous fashion ( Melochia , 
Waltheria) or, stamens subdivided above into few or numerous stam- 
inal leaflets, anthers two-cel]ed; pistil many to ten- to five- or four- 
carpelled; carpels apocarpous or more usually partially or completely 
united. Fruit either follicles, or fused to form a capsule of ten or 
more, frequently five dehiscent carpels or, carpels splitting asunder 
into cocci or, becoming a woody capsular nut ( Theobroma ) or, 
rarely the fruit may become succulent. Seeds globose or subglobose 
and often provided with wings, arils or similar appendages; embryo 
straight, large and surrounded by scanty albumen. 


362 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Official drug Part used Botanical origin Habitat 

Oleum Fixed oil Theobroma Cacao Tropical America 

Theobromatis 



Fig. 214 .—Theobroma cacao —Branch and fruit. (Sayre.) 


Cacao Praepara- Prepared powder Theobroma Cacao Tropical America 
turn N.F. from roasted and other species 

kernels of seeds 

Kola N.F. Cotyledons Cola acuminata and Africa, West 

other species Indies 













TAXONOMY 


363 


Tiliacea or Linden Family. —Shrubs or trees, rarely herbs, having 
stellate hairs on both stems and leaves. Leaves alternate, pinnately 
more rarely palmately veined, stipulate. Inflorescence cymose. 
Flowers hermaphrodite, more rarely, by absorption, more or less 
diclinous; sepals and petals five each, more rarely four, sepals de¬ 
ciduous; stamens five opposite the petals or, as in Sterculiacece, 
five phalanges of stamens representing subdivided stamens (Tilia), 
pistil of ten to five or two syncarpous carpels; ovary superior. 
Fruit either a nut-like drupe or drupe, rarely baccate. 

Unofficial drug Part used Botanical origin Habitat 

Tilia Inflorescence Tilia species United States and 

Europe 

Malvacece or Mallow Family. —Herbs in temperate regions ( Malva 
rotundifolia, Althaea officinalis, etc.), occasionally shrubs in temperate 
regions (. Hibiscus Syriacus, etc.), frequently shrubs or tall trees in 
the tropics. Stems, as in Sterculiacece and TUiacece, sometimes 
forming numerous layers of hard and soft bast. Leaves alternate 
and stipulate, ovate, ovate-cordate, orbicular or palmately com¬ 
pound; venation pinnate or palmate. Stems, roots and leaves con¬ 
tain mucilage cells. Inflorescence a raceme or fascicle of cymes. 
Flowers regular, pentamerous; calyx green, of five aposepalous sepals 
but frequently surrounded outside by an epicalyx. Both calyx and 
epicalyx are persistent. Corolla of five petals varying in color which 
are more or less fused with stamens at their bases; stamens mon-adel- 
phous and forming an upright column enclosing the styles; anthers 
one-celled, dehiscing transversely; pollen grains echinate; pistil 
loosely or strongly syncarpous, rarely sub-apocarpous of thirty to 
five carpels. Fruit either a set of cocci, follicles or a capsule ( Gos - 
sypium). Seeds albuminous with oily and mucilaginous albumen. 


364 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 



Fig. 215 .—Gossypium herbaceum —Branch. (Sayre.) 






TAXONOMY 


365 


Official drug Part used 

Althaea Root (peeled) 

Althaea Folia N.F. Leaves 


Gossypii Cortex N.F. Bark of root 


Gossypium 

Purificatum 

Oleum Gossypii 
Seminis 


Hairs of seed 

Fixed oil from 
seeds 


Malvae Folia N. F. Leaves 

Unofficial 

Althaea Flores Flowers 


Botanical origin Habitat 

Althaea officinalis Europe and Asia 
Althaea officinalis Europe and Asia 
Cultivated varieties of: 


Gossypium 

herbaceum 

< 

Gossypium 

Barbadense 

Gossypium 

arboreum 

> 

Cultivated varieties 
< of Gossypium 
herbaceum 
Cultivated varieties 
of Gossypium 
species 

Malva sylvestris 
Malva rotundifolia 

Althaea rosea 


Arabia, United 
States, East 
Indies 

United States and 
Africa 

Egypt, Arabia and 
India 

Arabia, East 
Indies, United 
States 

United States, 
Asia, Africa and 
South America 

| Europe 
Europe 



1 Fig. 216.—Upland^cotton (Gossypium hirsutum). A, mature boll opened 
out; B, cross-section of young boll; C, single seed with fibers; D, young boll. 
(Robbins.) 









366 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


XIX. Order Parietales (Ovaries of flower have parietal placen¬ 
tas.)— Theacece or TeaFamily ( Ternstrcemiacece,Cammeliacece) .—Ever¬ 
green shrubs or low branching or tall, often heavy trees with watery 
juice. Leaves for the most part alternate, evergreen, often leathery, 
sometimes membranous; stipules either bud scales and caducous 
or often absent; leaf margins sinuate or serrate ( Thea ). Inflores¬ 
cence a raceme becoming by condensation terminal, one-flowered. 
Flowers regular, perfect, pentamerous; sepals five, rarely four to 
three, deciduous, occasionally subtended by bracteolar scales; petals 
five, brittle and succulent varying from greenish-white or greenish- 
yellow through yellow to white or, from whitish pink to pink, scarlet, 
crimson, very rarely a tendency toward purple; stamens typically 
five but, as they grow, they subdivide into staminal leaflets, so that 
in their mature condition they are apparently indefinite and mono- 
to polyadelphous; stamens inserted hypogynously or perigynously 
and opposite the petals; pistil of typically five syncarpous carpels but 
reduced in some species~to four to three or two. Fruit usually a cap¬ 
sule {Thea), five- to three-celled, dehiscing longitudinally, more 
rarely a fleshy, semi-baccate, semi-drupaceous indehiscent fruit. 
Seeds with scanty or no albumen and often attached to inner angle 
of cells by projecting spongy placentae. 


Official drug Part used Botanical origin Habitat 

Caffeina Feebly basic Thea sinensis Eastern Asia 

substance 

Unofficial 

Thea Leaves Thea sinensis var. Eastern Asia 

Bohea and viridis 

Guttiferce or Gamboge Family. —Tropical trees (< Garcinia ), rarely 
shrubs, containing resinous principles in resin canals' found in 
cortex and pith. Leaves opposite, coriaceous. Flowers dioecious, 
generally pentamerous or tetramerous with usually five stamens 
which are subdivided. Fruit a berry {Garcinia Hanburyi ), drupe 
or capsule. Seeds generally large; embryo large to huge, often 
with enlarged radicle and reduced or absorbed cotyledons. 

Official drug Part used Botanical origin Habitat 


Cambogia Gum resin 


Garcinia Hanburyi 


f Malabar coast- 
l and Travancore 


TAXONOMY 


367 

Hypericacea or St. John’s Wort Family .--—Herbs or shrubs 
of temperate climes with opposite (.Hypericum perforatum) rarely 
whorled branches and balsamic, resinous juices, which,• in the herba¬ 
ceous species, are secreted by black or pellucid glands found in the 



Pig. 217.— Garcinicfyianburii —Branch. (Sayre.) 


leaf parenchyma. Leaves entire, opposite, usually sessile; exstipu- 
late, and dotted. Flowers, regular, hypogynous and arranged in 
panicles or forked cymes. Petals usually 5. Stamens usually 
indefinite, rarely definite, often in 3-5 sets, more rarely monadelphous 






3 68 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


or free. Pistil of usually 3-5 carpels with 3-5 celled compound 
ovary and as many filiform styles as carpels. Fruit a capsule 
with usually septicidal dehiscence (Hypericum) or a berry. Seeds 
small, numerous, anatropous and exalbuminous. 

Unofficial drug Part used Botanical origin Habitat 

Hypericum Entire plant Hypericum perforatum Europe 

Canellaceoe Family. —Trees the bark of which contains aromatic 
principles. Leaves alternate, pellucid-punctate. Flowers regular, 
golden-yellow, and arranged in terminal or axillary cymes. Fruit 
a berry containing two to many seeds with oily and fleshy albumen. 

Official drug Part used Botanical origin Habitat 

Canella N.F. Inner bark Canella Winterana { an< * West 

l Indies 

Bixaceoe Family. —Tropical shrubs or trees. Leaves alternate, 
simple with minute or no stipules. Flowers hermaphrodite or uni¬ 
sexual, regular, stamens hypogynous, mostly indefinite with anthers 
opening by slits, rarely by one or two apical pores ( Bixa). Fruit 
fleshy or dry. Seeds with fleshy albumen and sometimes covered 
with a fleshy arillus (Bixa Orellana). 

Unofficial drug Part used Botanical origin Habitat 

Annatto Coloring matter Bixa Orellana { America 

l and Madagascar 

Chaulmoogra oil Fixed oil from Gynocardia odorata India 
seeds 

Violaceoe or Violet Family. —Herbs or shrub. Stems upright, 
rarely creeping, spreading or acaulescent. Leaves either cauline or 
radical, stipulate, alternate, simple to pinnatifid or palmate. 
Flowers pentamerous, regular or irregular (Viola). Fruit a loculi- 
cidally dehiscent capsule (Viola) rarely baccate. Seeds albuminous. 

Unofficial drug Part used Botanical origin Habitat 

Viola Entire herb Viola tricolor Temperate regions 

Turneracece or Damiana Family. —Tropical herbs, shrubs or 
trees. Leaves alternate, • simple, petioled, exstipulate. Flowers 
perfect, regular, axillary, pentamerous with one-celled ovary. Fruit 


TAXONOMY 


369 


a capsule with three valves. Seeds strophiolate with albuminous 
embryo. 



Habitat 


Lower California 
and Mexico 


Passifloracece or Passion Flower Family. —Herbaceous or woody 
vines climbing by tendrils. Leaves alternate, simple, entire, lobed 
or compound. Flowers perfect or imperfect, solitary; peduncles 
jointed at the flower; perianth petaloid with urceolate or tubular 
tube and four to five or eight to ten partite and two-seriate limb, the 
throat usually crowned by one or more series of subulate filaments 
which are frequently colored; gynophore elongating supporting the 
stamens and pistil. Fruit a one-celled berry (. Passiflora ) or three- 
to five-valved dehiscent capsule containing numerous seeds. 

Official drug Part used Botanical origin Habitat 

Passiflora N.F. Entire herb Passiflora-incarnata United States 

Caricaceoe or Papaw Family. —A family of latex-containing trees 
composed of two genera indigenous to tropical America. Of chief 
pharmaceutic interest is the species Carica Papaya , the Papaw or 
Melon tree, the fruit of which yields Papain, a valuable digestive 
ferment. This plant is a tree about 20 feet high which bears at its 
summit a cluster of deeply lobed petiolate leaves and dioecious flow¬ 
ers. The fruit is a berry, the size of one’s head and contains an acrid 
milky juice from which papain can be precipitated by the addition 
of alcohol. 

Cistaceoe or Rock Rose Family. —Herbs or shrubs whose stem and 
branches are often glandular, pubescent or tomentose, with simple 
or stellate trichomes. Leaves simple, entire, the lower ones opposite, 
upper alternate. Flowers perfect, regular, terminal, and solitary 
or in cymes or unilateral racemes; sepals five, the two external ones 
often bractiform or wanting; petals five ( Helianthemum ) rarely three 
or none (. Lechea ); stamens hypogynous, indefinite; carpels three to 
five, ovary free, one-celled. Fruit a one-celled, three- to five-valved 
capsule. 


24 


370 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Official drug Pait used Botanical origin Habitat 

Helianthemum Herb ‘ Helianthemum Eastern United 

N.F. canadense States 

XX. Order Opuntiales .—Cactacea or Cactus Family. —Herba¬ 
ceous rarely arborescent ( Cereus giganteus ) more or less succulent 



Fig. 218 .—Daphne mezereum —Fruiting branch and flowers. (Sayre.) 

plants living in warm, dry ( Peireskia) y usually desert situations, 
rarely becoming epiphytic and correspondingly modified. Stems 
accordingly varying from elongate, slightly enlarged, green (. Peireskia ) 
to flattened ( Cereus and Opuntia), to condensed (Echinocactus , 




TAXONOMY 


371 


Echinoctreus , etc.), to greatly condensed ( Mamillaria ). Leaves 
alternate, stipulate or exstipulate, enlarged apd more or less fleshy 
(.Peireskia ), becoming reduced, green and semicircular ( Opuntia ), 
or modified into spines, or wholly absorbed. Flowers, regular, 
solitary or fascicled in axils of leaves;, sepals five; petals similar to 
sepals, petaloid, small to much enlarged, in color varying from yellow 
to white,,or from yellow to yellowish-pink, pink, scarlet or crimson; 
stamens indefinite, inserted at varying levels in the throat of a greatly 
expanded upgrowp. receptacle; pistil generally tricarpellary; ovary 
inferior, pften deeply sunk in upgrown receptacular part; style thread¬ 
like, divided above into as many stigmas as carpels. Fruit a recept¬ 
acular berry enclosing numerous small seeds. Seeds exalbuminous. . 

Official drug Part used Botanical origin Habitat 

Cactus Fresh succulent Chctus grandiflorus \ . , . 

Grandiflorus . stems ' (Cereus grandiflorus) / Tr0pICal AmenCa 

N.F. 

XXI. Order Myrtales (Myrtifiorae). — THymeleacece or Mezereum 
Family. —Shrubs (Daphne Mezereum ) or low trees, usually of branch¬ 
ing habit, the stepis developing long tenacious bast fibers. Leaves 
alternate, rarely opposite; coriaceous, simple, varying from lanceolate 
to ovate. Inflorescence ,a condensed raceme or spike. Flowers 
perfect, polygamous or dioecious, small with calyx alone of the 
perianth parts developed. This is crimson-purple in Daphne 
Mezereum. Sepals usually fused to form a tube or cup-shaped 
perianth. Stamens usually eight in two rows of four longer and 
four shorter (. Daphne Mezereum) inserted on the calyx tube. Pistil 
monocarpellary; ovary superior mostly one-celled with a single, 
pendulous ovule. Fruit a nut, drupe, or berry {Daphne). 

Official drug Part used Botanical origin Habitat 

f Daphne Mezereum ) 

Mezereum Bark \ Daphne Gnidium \ Europe and Asia 

^ Daphne Laureola J 

Punicacect {Lythracece) ot Pomegranate Family.—Kerbs {Cuphea), 
shrubs {Decadon) or low trees (. Punica ). Leaves either alternate, 
opposite {Punica) or whorled, simple, usually lanceolate to ovate, 
entire, often glandular and viscous. Inflorescence a raceme, spike, 


372 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


or condensed cyme. Flowers perfect, usually regular, but pass more 
or less to irregular, sometimes very irregular as in genus Cuphea\ 
sepals five to four, more or less fused below in themselves and with 
calyx tube; petals commonly five, often frilled or crumpled, inserted 
on the mouth of the calyx tube; stamens fifteen, ten or five in alter¬ 
nate rows of five each, inserted hypogynously or perigynously; 
pistil six-, five-, four,- two—, rarely one-carpeled with as many cavi¬ 
ties in the ovary and numerous small ovules; style elongate with 
pointed or knobbed stigma. Flowers of Punica granatum are 
scarlet in color. Fruit a baccate capsule (Punica granatum) or 



Fig. 219. —Punica granatum —Branch with flowers. (Sayre.) 

capsule, dehiscing longitudinally or transversely. Seeds exal- 
buminous. 


Official drug 
Granatum 
Unofficial 
Granati Fructus 
Cortex 
Henna 


Part used 

Bark 

Rind of fruit 
Leaves 


Botanical origin 
Punica Granatum 

Punica Granatum 

Lawsonia inermis 


Habitat 

India 

India 

Egypt, Arabia 


TAXONOMY 


373 



Pig. 220. —Eucalyptus globulus —Branch. (Sayre.) 



374 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Myrtacece or Myrtle Family .—Rarely herbs ( Careya ) mostly 
shrubs or trees, some being the tallest trees known {Eucalyptus ). 
Stems often tend to develop cork in flakes which separate much as 
in the Buttonwoods. Leaves rarely alternate nearly always oppo¬ 



site, entire, often glistening, subcoriaceous to coriaceous (. Euca¬ 
lyptus , Pimenta, etc.), frequently edge-on in position upon branches. 
Inflorescence cymose, at times forming scorpioid cymes becoming 
condensed into small fascicles, or each cyme condensing into a 
solitary flower. 









TAXONOMY 


375 


Flowers regular or very rarely irregular from the lop-sided devel¬ 
opment of the stamens. Symmetry rarely hexamerous, typically 
pentamerous, not infrequently reduced to tetramerous {Clove) ; sepals 
five, six or four, aposepalous, or synsepalous at base, superior, and 
inserted around the edge of an expanded, upgrown receptacular 
disc, varying from green and more or less expanded to short, thick 
fleshy {Clove) or reduced to teeth {Eucalyptus) ; petals equal in num¬ 
ber to the sepals, more or less petaloid and enlarged, rarely reduced 
and wanting, varying in color from green through greenish-yellow 
to white {Eugenia species) or from whitish to pink, scarlet, crimson, 
purple and blue, petals sometimes synpetalous and cup-like, detach¬ 
ing as the flower opens; stamens usually indefinite and epigynous, 
varying in the color of their filaments as do the petals; pistil rarely 
of ten to six carpels usually of five, not infrequently, as in Clove, of 
four carpels; ovary inferior or semi-inferior, as many-celled as there 
are carpels and with central placentation; style elongate; stigma 
undivided. Fruit either a hard, woody indeshicent nut (Brazil 
Nut), a capsule dehiscing at apex {Eucalyptus) or berry {Eugenia). 
Seeds exalbuminous. 


Official drug 

Part used’ 

Botanical origin 

Habitat 

Eucalyptus 

Leaves 

Eucalyptus globulus ] 

Australia, 

Eucalyptol 

Organic oxide 

Eucal> ptus globulus i 

Tasmania 

Caryophyllus 

Flower buds 

Eugenia aromatica 1 

j> Molucca Islands 

Eugenol 

Aromatic phenol 

Eugenia aromatica 

Pimenta N.F. 

Fruit 

Pimerta officinalis 

West Indies, 
Central America, 
Mexico 

Oleum Cajuputi 

Unofficial 

Volatile oil from 
leaves and twigs 

Melaleuca 

Leucadendron 

East Indies 

Myrcia 

Volatile oil and 
leaves 

Myrcia acris 

West Indies 

Eucalyptus Kino 

Inspissated juice 

Eucalyptus rostrata 
and other species 

Australia 

Combretacece 

or Myrobalans 

Family— Mostly 

tropical shrubs 


and trees containing considerable tannin. Leaves exstipulate, 
alternate or opposite, simple, pinnately veined, entire or toothed. 
Inflorescence a raceme, spike or head. Flowers regular, perfect 


376 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


or imperfect. Fruit a drupe, frequently longitudinally winged, 
containing a single seed. 

Unofficial drug Part used Botanical origin Habitat 

Combretum Leaves Combretum Sumatra 

sundaicum 


XXII. Order Umbellales or Umbelliflorae. — Araliaceoe or Gin¬ 
seng Family. —Herbs (. Panax quinquefolium, Hedera Helix , Aralia 
nudicaulis, etc.), undershrubs {Aralia hispida, etc.), shrubs {Fatsia 
horrida ), or trees {Aralia spinosa ) with stems which are more or less 
hollow along internodes and solid at nodes. Leaves alternate, vary¬ 
ing from simple to trifoliate or to multipinnate (tropical Aralias) or 
passing by telescoping into compound-palmate. Leaves serrate 
margined and along with stem they develop volatile oil, resin and 
gum contents in secretion reservoirs. Inflorescence varying from a 
raceme of umbels to a raceme and even to condensed racemose 
umbels. Flowers regular, generally pentamerous, small, generally 
inconspicuous, green, greenish-yellow to rarely white, usually 
hermaphrodite but sometimes polygamous or dioecious; sepals 
five, rarely four; petals five, rarely four, often greenish to greenish- 
yellow, occasionally white, seldom pink in color; stamens varying 
from indefinite to ten to commonly five, opoosite sepals, and, like 
sepals, epigynous in insertion; anthers versatile; pistil occasionally 
fifteen- to ten-, usually five-carpellate; ovary as many celled with one 
or rarely two pendulous ovules in each cavity; styles distinct 
ending in knob-shaped stigmas. Fruit a berry. Seeds albuminous. 


Official drug Part used 

Aralia N.F. Rhizome and 

roots 

Unofficial 

Aralia Nudicaulis Rhizome 


Aralia Spinosa Bark 

Ginseng Root 

Panax Repens Rhizome 


Botanical origin 

Aralia racemosa 


Habitat 

Eastern Uuited 
States and 
Canada 


Aralia nudicaulis Eastern United 
States and 
Canada 

Aralia spinosa Eastern United 

States 

Panax quinquefolium North America 
Panax repens Japan 


TAXONOMY 


377 


Umbelliferce or Parsley Family. —Herbs, rarely shrubs, often of 
rapid growth, and with upright, fistular (hollow at internodes, 
solid at nodes), often grooved and ridged stems. Leaves alternate, 
compound and usually much divided, exstipulate, but with expanded 
sheathing and flattened leaf base (Pericladium), that ensheathes 
the stem. Inflorescence a simple or often compound umbel sur¬ 
rounded by an involucre of bracts or of bracteoles. Flowers small, 
pentamerous, with inferior ovary and superior floral parts. Sepals 
minute, tooth-like, inserted above inferior ovary, or absorbed. 
Petals small, usually yellow to white, rarely pink to purple, distinct, 
eact with inflexed tip. Stamens five, epigynous, inserted below a 
nectariferous, epigynous disc, incurved in bud. Carpels two, fused 
into bicarpellate pistil. Ovary two-celled, with one pendulous 
ovule in each cell, ovarian wall traversed by oleoresin canals; 
styles two, distinct above the nectar disc or stylopod. Fruit a dry, 
splitting fruit or cremocarp, that splits lengthwise into two mericarps 
which hang for a time by a forked carpophore. Seeds single in each 
mericarp, albuminous. 

Official drug Part used Botanical origin Habitat 

Anisum Ripe fruit Pimpinella Anisum Asia Minor, Egypt 


and Greece 


Anethol N.F. 



Foeniculum 


Nearly ripe 
fruit 

Rhizome and 
roots 
Fruit 

Unripe fruit 
Gum resin 


Foeniculum vulgare Mediterranean 


Sumbul 


region 

Ferula Sumbul Turkestan 


Petroselini Radix Root 
N.F. 


Angelicse Fructus Ripe fruit 


Petroselinum Ripe fruit 


Carum 
Conium N.F. 
Asafoetida 


Coriandrum Ripe fruit 


Petroselinum 

sativum 

Petroselinum 

sativum 

Angelica Archangel- 


Carum Carvi 
Conium maculatum 
Ferula foetida, F. 
Asafoetida, etc. 
Coriandrum sativum 


Europe, Asia 

Europe 

Persia and 

Afghanistan 

Mediterranean 

and Caucasian 

regions 

Southern Europe 
Asia Minor 
Southern Europe, 
Asia Minor 
Northern Europe 


378 PHARMACEUTICAL B OTANY 


Official drug 

Part used 

Botanical origin 

Habitat 

N.F. 


ica and other species 
of Angelica 

and Siberia 

Angelicae Radix 

Rhizome and 

Angelica atropur- 

United States 

N.F. 

roots 

purea and other 
species of Angelica 

and Canada 

Apii Fructus N.F. 

Ripe fruit 

Apium graveolens 

England 

Unofficial 




Imperatoria 

Root 

Imperatoria 

Europe 

• 


Ostruthiuru 


Pimpinella 

Roots 

( Pimpinella Saxifraga 
\ Pimpinella magna 

| Central Europe 

Ammoniacum 

Gum-resin 

Dorema 

Persia 



Ammoniacum 


Galbanum 

Gum-resin 

Ferula galbaniflua 

Persia and 
Afghanistan 

Levisticum 

Root 

Levisticum officinale 

Europe 


Cornaceoe or Dogwood Family. —Herbs ( Cornus canadensis , etc.), 
shrubs ( Cornus sanguinea, etc.) or trees ( Cornus florida, Nyssa 
sylvatica , etc.). Leaves simple, alternate (Sour Gum), or opposite 
(Dogwoods). Inflorescence an umbel or head, the whole being 
surrounded by an enlarged and more or less petaloid involucre. 
Flowers regular, rarely pentamerous, more frequently tetramerous; 
sepals usually four, small tooth-like or absorbed; petals usually 
four, small, greenish to yellowish to white ( Cornus florida ), rarely 
pink or crimson; stamens four or five, alternate to the petals and 
inserted with the sepals and petals epigynously around and between 
the nectar disc; pistil syncarpous, bicarpellate, rarely tricarpellate; 
ovary as many celled with one pendulous ovule in each cavity; 
style usually simple, ending in rounded or slightly bilobed stigma. 
Fruit a two-seeded drupe. Seeds albuminous. 

Official drug Part used Botanical origin Habitat 

Cornus N.F. Bark of root Cornus florida Eastern United 

States and 
Canada 

Sub-class b.—Sympetal^e (Gamopetal^e or METAcnLAMYDEiE) 

A division of dicotyledonous plants in which the flowers possess 
both calyx and corolla, the latter with petals more or less united 
into one piece. 


TAXONOMY 


379 


I. Order Ericales.— Ericaceae or Heath Family. —Sub-herbaceous 
{Chimaphila), suffruticose {Erica), fruticose {Azaleas, Kalmias, 
etc.), rarely sub-arborescent {Arbutus unedo or Strawberry Tree) 
plants. Roots fibrous often saprophytically associated, rarely 
tuberous or more or less enlarged. Stem upright, ascending or creep¬ 
ing, more or less woody, rarely through saprophytic connection be¬ 
coming soft, annual and pale above ground {Monotropa uniflora). 



Leaves alternate, simple, entire, exstipulate, rarely soft, delicate, 
herbaceous {Azaleas), usually leathery to wiry and evergreen, more 
rarely {Pterospora, Monotropa, etc.) becoming greenish-blue, bluish- 
yellow, yellowish-white to white and correspondingly saprophytic. 
Inflorescence typically a raceme {Pyrola, Andromeda, Gaylussacia, 
Erica, Arctostaphylos Uva Ur si, etc.) but raceme condensed into a 
racemose umbel {Azalea, etc.) or further reduced to a few flowers or, 
in the degraded saprophytic condition to one flower {Monotropa 



380 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


uniflora). Flowers regular, passing to irregular (. Rhododendron ), 
pentamerous or tetramerous; sepals five to four, rarely fewer, apo- 
to synsepalous, usually green, sometimes brightly petaloid; petals 
five more rarely four, slightly to deeply synpetalous, cup-shaped 
(Kalmia ) to urceolate (. Arctostaphylos, Andromeda, etc.), yellow to 
white or through yellow pink to scarlet to crimson to crimson- 
purple; stamens ten to eight in two circles of five to four each, be¬ 
coming by absorption of inner circle, five to four only, hypogynous, 
epipetalous or epigynous; anthers two-celled, dehiscing by apical 
pores (. Arctostaphylos ) or apical slits; pollen sometimes agglutinated 
into long viscous threads; pistil five- to four-, rarely six- to eight car- 
peled, superior, rarely semi-inferior to inferior (Vaccinece); ovarv as 
many celled as there are carpels; style elongated, filiform, usually 
five- to four lobed. Fruit a capsule ( Trailing Arbutus), berry [Var- 
cinium) or false drupe {Gaultheria). Seeds small, anatropou« 


Official drug 

Part used 

Botanical origin 


Habitat 





United States, 

Chimaphila N.F. 

Leaves 

Chimaphila 

umbellata 


Canada, North¬ 
ern Europe and 
Asia 





Northern United 

Uva Ursi 

Leaves 

Arctostaphylos Uva 


States and 

Ursi 


Canada, Europe 
and Asia 



Methylis Salicylas 

Volatile oil 

Gaultheria 

United States and 



procumbens 

Canada 

Unofficial 





Gaultheria 

Leaves 

Gaultheria 

United States and 



procumbens 

Canada 


II. Order Ebenales.— Sapotaceoe or Star Apple Family. —Tropical 
shrubs or trees {Palaquium) characterized by the presence of lati- 
ciferous sacs in the pith and cortex of the stems and adjoining the 
veins of the leaves. Leaves alternate, exstipulate, evergreen and 
coriaceous. Flowers perfect, large and axillary. Fruit a berry 
{Palaquium) rarely a capsule {Ponteria). 


Official drug Part used 

{ Purified coagu¬ 
lated milky 
exudate 


Botanical origin Habitat 

I Various species of I Indo-China and 
Palaquium 1 East Indies 



TAXONOMY 


38l 


Styracece or Benzoin Family. —Shrubs or low trees. Leaves alter¬ 
nate to opposite, entire, often acuminate. Flowers hermaphrodite, 
regular, rarely sub-irregular, either in condensed fascicles or solitary 
in the axils of the leaves; sepals and petals typically five each; 
corolla often white, rarely pinkish or yellowish; stamens many to 
four to two, perigynous or sub-hypogynous; pistil bicarpellary or 
four to five carpellate. Fruit either fleshy or dry, often winged and 
rarely as many-celled as there are carpels. 


Official drug Part used 

Benzoinum Balsamic resin 


Botanical origin Habitat 

Styrax Benzoin East Indies and 
and other species Siam 


III. Order Contortae (Gentianales). — Oleacece or Olive Family .— 
Shrubs (. Forsythia , Chionanthus, Syringa, etc.) or trees (. Fraxinus , 
Olea, etc.) with stems possessing close white wood, and slightly 
swollen or enlarged nodes. Leaves opposite, decussate, simple, 
rarely pinnately compound (Ash). Inflorescence dichesial or scor- 
pioid cymes but tending constantly toward condensation and so in 
the Lilac, the inflorescence becomes a clustered raceme of cymes 
(thyrsus). Flowers regular, pentamerous or tetramerous; sepals 
small, green, rarely petaloid, synsepalous; petals synpetalous, elong¬ 
ated into a narrow tube, expanding above into a stellate limb; 
stamens very rarely five, rarely four to three, nearly always two, 
epipetalous and high set on corolla tube; pistil bicarpellate, rarely 
of three to four carpels; ovary two-celled with two to one pendulous 
ovules in each cavity. Fruit either a capsule (Lilac), drupe (Olive), 
berry (Privet) or a winged indehiscent akene (Ash). Seeds with 
moderate to scanty albumen becoming occasionally exalbuminous. 


Official drug Part used 

Manna Dried saccharine 

exudate 

Oleum Olivae Fixed oil 

Chionanthus N.F. Bark of root 
Fraxinus N.F. Bark 


Botanical origin Habitat 

Fraxinus Ornus Southern Europe 


Olea Europaea Southern Europe, 

Algeria, Asia 

Chinoanthus Southern United 

virginica States 

Fraxinus AmericanaNorthern United 
States and 
Canada 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


382 

Loganiacece or Logania Family. —Herbs (Spigelia, etc.), woody 
vines -(Gelsemium, etc.) or trees (Strychnos' Nux Vomicd, etc.) with a 
bitter juice usually containing alkaloids. Stem, rarely herbaceous, 



Fig. 223 .—Strychnos nux vomica —Flowering branch and seeds. (Sayre.) 


usually woody, often long climbing and rope-like ( Gelsemium ), usu¬ 
ally with a bicollateral bundle system. Leaves opposite, stipulate 



TAXONOMY 


383 


or exstipulate. Inflorescence racemose or cymose ( Spigelia ) (scor- 
pioid cyme {Strychnos ), sometimes condensed into solitary, axillary 
flowers. Flowers perfect, usually, regular; calyx gamosepalous; 
corolla gamopetalous, hypogynous, rotate, campanulate or infundi- 



buliform; stamens inserted on the corolla tube or throat and with 
thread-like filaments; ovary superior, two-celled; style elongate with 
bifid stimga; ovules numerous. Fruit usually a capsule, septicidally 
dehiscent (Gelsemium sempervirens ), or loculicidally dehiscent (. Spige - 


38 4 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


lia marilandica) , sometimes a berry ( Strychnos Nux Vomica) or 
drupe. Seeds numerous or solitary, sometimes winged. 


Official drug 

Part used 

Botanical origin 

Habitat 

Nux Vomica 

Seeds 

Strychnos Nux 
Vomica 

East Indies 

Gelsemium 

Rhizome and 

Gelsemium 

Southern United 


roots 

sempervirens 

States 

Spigelia 

Rhizome and 

Spigelia marilandica Southern United 


roots 


States 

Ignatia N.F. 

Seeds 

Strychnos Ignatii 

Philippine Islands 


Gentianacece or Gentian Family.— Herbs often low-growing. Roots 
and short stems sometimes more or less thickened ( Gentiana luted). 
Leaves opposite, decussate, entire, exstipulate. Inflorescence cy- 
mose (i Gentiana luted) or condensing to a single, solitary, terminal 
flower (< Gentiana verna, G. acaulis , etc.) Flowers regular, perfect, 
pentamerous or tetramerous, sepals five to four, green, more or less 
synsepalous, not infrequently everted or reflexed, corolla of five, 
rarely four petals, more or less synpetalous, in shape passing from 
open-stellate, as in Gentiana lutea , through many stages of connation 
to long-tubed, as in Gentiana acaulis; stamens five, epipetalous; 
pistil bicarpellate; ovary one-celled or incompletely two-celled; style 
more or less elongated with bilobed to divided stigma. Fruit a 
capsule. Seeds albuminous. 


Official drug Part used 

Gentiana Rhizome and 

roots 

Chirata N.F. Entire plant 
Menyanthes N.F. Leaves 

Centaurium N.F. Flowering plant 

Unofficial 


Botanical origin 
Gentiana lutea 

Swertia Chirayita 
Menyanthes 
trifoliata 
Erythraea 
Centaurium 


Habitat 

Europe and Asia 
Minor 

Northern India 
Europe and Asia 

Europe 


Sabbatia ' Herb 


Sabbatia angularis Eastern United 
States and 
Canada 


Apocynacece or Dog Bane Family. —Herbs, rarely shrubs, not infre¬ 
quently clambering or climbing in habit {Allamandd). Stem and 
branches show bicollateral bundles. Stem, leaves and flowers have 


TAXONOMY 


385 

latex tubes which ramify through the cortex and mesophyll tissues. 
Leaves alternate, opposite or verticillate, simple, entire, deciduous 
or evergreen. Inflorescence cymose. Flowers regular, pentamer- 
ous, rarely tetramerous; sepals five, gamosepalous, green, rarely sub- 
petaloid to petaloid; petals five, slightly to deeply gamopetalous, in 



Fig. .225 .—Strophanthus hispidus —Branch and seed with comose awn. (Sayre.) 


shape varying from open tubular, stellate, to elongate tubular to 
elongate funnel-shaped, in color varying from greenish-yellow to 
white or from yellow to yellow-red to crimson to crimson-purple to 
nearly purple-blue; stamens five, epipetalous; pistil usually bicarpel- 
late; ovary two-celled with central placentation; style more or less 

25 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


386 . 

elongate with terminal brush of hairs, knobbed or multifid; stigma 
circular band or circular spur beneath terminal style swelling. Fruit 
two follicles (Apocynum, etc.), a berry, drupe, or capsule. Seeds 
flattened, frequently hairy, albuminous. 


Official drug 

Part used 

Botanical origin 

f Strophanthus 

Habitat 

Strophanthus 

Seeds (deprived 
of awn) 

Kombe 
Strophanthus 
[ hispidus 

• Africa 

Strophanthin 

Glucoside 

Strophanthus 

hispidus 

Africa 

Apocynum N.F. 

Rhizome and 

Apocynum 

United States and 


roots 

cannabinum 

Canada 

Aspidosperma 

Bark 

Aspidosperma 
Quebracho bianco 

Central and South 
America 


Asclepiadacece or Milkweed Family. —Herbs or shrubs -containing 
a milky juice, many species yielding rubber. Leaves entire, more 
or less fleshy, sometimes verticillate. Inflorescence usually a 
dichesial or scorpioid cyme. Flowers regular, pentamerous; sepals 
wooly, small, synsepalous; petals five, rarely four, synpetalous, elon¬ 
gated into awls; the corolla varying in shape from stellate to cam- 
panulate and in color from pale green to yellow, to greenish-brown, 
chocolate, or from white to yellow, to scarlet, to crimson, to purple, to 
blue; stamens five, epipetalous, fused in relation forming a cylindrical 
swollen mass around the central pistil; filaments flattened and 
furnished with a crown having various appendages; anthers two- 
celled, each cell containing a pollen mass (pollinium), adhering to the 
glandular prominences of the stigma; pistil bicarpellate, superior. 
Fruit typically two dry follicles ( Asclepias ), rarely becoming succu¬ 
lent or bladdery. JSeeds numerous, compressed, imbricate with a 
comose appendage. 

Official drug Part used Botanical origin Habitat 

Asclepias N.F. Roots Asclepias tuberosa United States 

Condurango N.F. Bark “Marsdenia Peru and Ecudador 

Condurango 

IV. Order Tubiflorse or Polemoniales .—Convohulacece or Morn- 
ing glory Family.— Frequently herbaceous, more rarely sub-woody, 



TAXONOMY 


387 

woody, perennial climbing plants with underground parts sometimes 
swollen into tuberous roots (Jalap, Sweet Potato, Wild Man of the 
Earth). Stems rarely short, upright or tufted, usually elongate 
and circumnutating in action. Vascular bundles frequently bi¬ 
collateral. Leaves alternate, simple, exstipulate, varying from 



cordate to cordate-sagittal, to broad reniform to reniform, palmately 
lobed to palmatifid to palmately-compound (.Ipomcea shows all these 
transitions). Stem and leaves frequently contain a dull, viscous, 
watery to milky-white juice. Inflorescence a scorpioid cyme be¬ 
coming reduced in some forms to a solitary flower. Flowers penta- 




388 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


merous; sepals five, green, gamosepalous; corolla varying in shape 
from rotate to funnel-like with expanded mouth, in color from 
greenish-yellow to white or through yellowish-pink to scarlet, 
crimson, purple or blue; stamens five, often with the bases of the fila¬ 
ments expanded; pistil bicarpellate; ovary two celled, superior, often 
surrounded by a nectar girdle; style filiform with bilobed or bifid 
stigma. Fruit usually a capsule (. Exogonium , etc.), dehiscing septi- 
fragally, rarely a berry. Seeds scantily albuminous to exalbumi- 
nous. 


Official drug 

Part used 

Botanical origin 

Habitat 

Jalapa 

Tuberous root 

Exogonium Purga 

Mexico 



Convolvulus 

1 Asia Minor, 

Scammomae Radix Root 

Unofficial 

Scammonia 

/ Greece, Syria 

Male Jalap 

Root 

Ipomoea orizabensis 

Mexico 

Tampico Jalap 

Root 

Ipomoea simulans 

Mexico 

Wild Jalap 

Root 

Ipomoea pandurata 

United States 

Turpeth Root 

Root 

Operculina TurpethumEast Indies 


Hydrophyllacece or Water Leaf Family .—Annual, herbaceous, 
rarely perennial woody plants whose stems, branches, leaves and 
sepals are often viscous and glandular hairy. Leaves alternate, 
exstipulate, from simple linear to pinnatipartite to pinnate. Inflor¬ 
escence rarely expanded, usually scorpioid cymes. Flowers small 
to large, funnel-form in Eriodictyon californicum\ sepals five, green; 
petals five, regular; corolla varying from small stellate with slightly 
fused petals to large rotate, campanulate or tubular, in color varying 
from greenish-white or yellow to rarely white, often pink, purple 
or blue; stamens five, rarely with alternate staminodes; pistil bicar¬ 
pellate. Fruit a two-celled capsule dehiscing usually septicidally. 

Official drug Part used Botanical origin Habitat 

Eriodictyon Leaves Eriodictyon California and 

californicum New Mexico 

Borraginacece or Borage Family. —Herbaceous ( Borraginece sub¬ 
family) or shrubby ( Heliotropece sub-family), plants forming a pri¬ 
mary root and a single or often branched shoots. Leaves often 
divisible into expanded, sometimes large basal and alternate scat¬ 
tered cauline leaves. Each of these simple, exstipulate, often hairy, 


TAXONOMY 


389 


rarely glabrous. Inflorescence a raceme of dichesial or scorpioid 
cymes, at times condensed into a dichesium of scorpioids or a simple 
scorpioid cyme. Flowers pentamerous, regular, passing to slight 
or marked irregularity (. Echium)\ sepals five; green, slightly or 



Fig. 227 .—Atropa belladonna —Branch. (Sayre.) 


deeply gamosepalous, often hairy; petals five, the corolla varying in 
shape from rotate with shallow tube (Myosotis and Borage ), to 
tubular (, Symphytum ), to funnel-shaped in most species, in color, all 
transitions frequently purple-blue to blue; stamens five; pistil 



39° 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


bicarpellate, syncarpous, embryologically two-celled with two ovules 
in each cavity, but dorsal ingrowths divide ovary by time of flowering 
into four cells with one ovule in each cavity; style gynobasic. Fruit 
typically four-nutlets. Seeds solitary in each cavity and either 
scantily albuminous ( Heliotropes ) or exalbuminous (Borraginece). 



Pig. 228. —Hyoscyamus niger —Flowering branch. (Sayre.) 


Unofficial Part used 

Symphytum Root 

(Comfrey) 

Cynoglossum Herb and root 

(Hound’s tongue) 

Alkanet Root 


Botanical origin Habitat 

Symphytum officinale Europe and 

United States 
Cynoglossum United States 

officinale 

Alkanna tinctoria So. Europe and Asia 


Solanaceoe or Nightshade Family .—Stem herbaceous, rarely shrubby 
or arborescent, frequently with bicollateral bundles. Leaves alter- 



TAXONOMY 


391 


nate, exstipulate, entire or more or less lobed, rarely compound; 
often glandular-hairy. Flowers in cymes; regular or rarely irregular 
(Petunia, Tobacco sps.), pentamerous, perfect, synphyllous; sepals 
green (rarely petaloid), rotate to tubular, usually persistent and 
accrescent; petals rotate (Solanum), to tubular (Atropa), to funnel- 
shaped (Tobacco), and so (1) open to all comers, or (2) to bees or 
wasps, or (3) to butterflies, moths; color, greenish-yellow, or 
greenish-white, to white, to pink, crimson, purple, rarely blue; sta¬ 
mens five, epipetalous, hypogynous, along with style usually forming 
nectar glands. Filaments short to long, anthers dehiscing longi¬ 
tudinally or by apical pores; pistil bicarpellate, syncarpous, with 
or without nectar girdle; superior ovary, two-celled with central 
placentation, ovules numerous, style more or less elongate with 
bilobed or bifid stigma. Fruit, a capsule (Tobacco, Thornapple, 
Henbane) dehiscing longitudinally or transversely; or a berry 
(potato, egg-plant, tomato, red pepper). Seeds albuminous. 


Official drug 

Part used 

Botanical origin 

Habitat 

Central and 

Belladonnae Folia 

Leaves 

Atropa Belladonna 

Southern Europe 

Belladonnae Radix Root 

Atropa Belladonna 

Asia Minor and 
Persia 

Stramonium 

Leaves 

Datura Stramonium 
and D. Tatula 

Asia and Tropical 
America 

Hyoscyamus 

Leaves and 
flower tops 

Hyoscyamus niger 

. Europe, Asia 

Solanum N.F. 

Ripe fruit 

Solanum carolinense 

United States 

Capsicum 

Fruit 

Capsicum frutescens 

Tropical America 

Dulcamara N.F. 

Twigs and stems 

Solanum Dulcamara 

Europe and Asia 

Unofficial 

Duboisia 

Leaves 

Duboisia myoporoides Australia 

Tabacum 

Leaves 

Nicotiana tabacum 

Tropical America 

Scopola 

Rhizome 

Scopola Carniolica 

Alps and 
Carpathian Mts. 

Manaca 

Root 

Brunfelsia Hopeana 

Tropical America 

Paprika 

Fruit 

Capsicum annuum 1 
varieties , 

i America? culti- 
1 vated 

Pimiento 

Fruit 

Variety of Capsicum 
annuum 

Spain 



392 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Scorphulariacece or Figwort Family. —Herbs ( Linaria, Verbascum, 
Gerardia, Digitalis, etc.), shrubs (shrubby Veronicas, etc.), rarely 
trees ( Paulownia imperialis). Stem, branches and leaves usually 
green and independently vegetating, but in Pedicularis, Gerardia, 
Euphrasia, Buchner a, Rhinanthus, etc., the stem, leaves, and 
branches are condensed from the development of a parasitic root 
habit. Stems cylindrical to frequently quadrangular, especially 
when leaves are opposite. Leaves alternate to opposite and decus¬ 
sate, simple, exstipulate, often hairy, but becoming by drought or 



Fig. 229.—Nightshade, or bittersweet ( Solatium Dulcamara). (Gager.) 

parasiticism reduced to scales or almost absorbed. Inflorescence a 
raceme of cymes {Paulownia) or a simple raceme {Foxglove, Linaria, 
etc.) or spike {Verbascum Thapsus) or, if leaves are opposite, often a 
whorl of axillary flowers or solitary axillary flowers. Flowers rarely 
regular, mostly irregular; calyx of five sepals condensed in Veronica 
to four through absorption of one sepal by fusion of two sepals; 
corolla of five to four petals, deeply synpetalous, varying from rotate 
{Verbascum Blattaria, etc.) to irregular tubular to elongate, irregular 
bilabiate to funnel-shaped. In color, corolla varies from greenish 






TAXONOMY 


393 


to greenish-yellow or white ( Scrophularia) to pure white or from red 
to purple to blue (Veronica). Stamens five, fertile, equal in length 
in a few Verbascum species or unequal in other Verbascum species to 
stamens four with a long sterile staminode (Pentstemon) to four 
didynamous stamens with a short petaloid staminode (Scrophu¬ 
laria) to four didynamous stamens with a minute often nectariferous 
staminode (Linaria), to frequenty four didynamous stamens only, 
the two lateral or two anterior stamens stronger and longer (An¬ 
tirrhinum) to two perfect stamens and two minute staminodes 
(Calceolaria) to two stamens alone developed (Veronica). Pistil bi- 
carpellate; ovary two-celled with central placentation; style terminal 
with bilobed stigma; ovules numerous, small. Fruit a two-celled 
and usually many-seeded capsule. Seeds richly albuminous, 
anatropous or amphitropous. 


Official drug 

Digitalis 
Leptandra N.F. 


Verbasci Flores 
N.F. 


Part used 

Leaves 
Rhizome and 
roots 

Corollas with 
stamens 


Verbasci Folia N.F. Leaves 


Botanical origin 

Digitalis purpurea 
Veronica virginica 

Verbascum 
phlomoides 
Verbascum 
thapsiforme 
Verbascum Thapsus 
and other species of 
Verbascum 


Habitat 

Europe 

United States and 
Canada 

■ Europe and Asia 


Europe and Asia 


PedaliacecB or Sesame Family. —Tropical herbs often thickly 
covered with viscous hairs. Leaves soft, usually alternate, more 
rarely opposite, exstipulate. Flowers irregular, pentamerous. 
Fruit a capsule (Sesamum, etc.), drupe, or rarely a one-seeded indehis- 
cent nut. Seeds exalbuminous usually. 

Official drug Part used Botanical origin Habitat 

Oleum Sesami Fixed oil Sesamum indicum Asia and Africa 

(Benne Oil) (cultivated varieties) 

Acanthacece or Acanthus Family. —Usually herbaceous (Ruellia), 
rarely sub-woody or woody plants, occasionally bushy in habit, con¬ 
taining cystoliths in the mesophyll or epidermal cells of the leaves 
and in the parenchyma of the roots and stems. Leaves opposite, 



394 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 



Fig. 230 .—Digitalis purpurea var. gloxinaeflora 



TAXONOMY 


395 


more rarely whorled, entire, exstipulate. Inflorescence a raceme of 
condensed cymes, becoming a simple raceme or spike, rarely con¬ 
densed into a solitary terminal inflorescence. Flowers hermaphro¬ 
dite, usually irregular; calyx five-cleft; corolla hypogynous, 
gamopetalous, more or less bilabiate, funnel-form and composed of 
five sepals; stamens usually four {Ruellia, etc.), occasionally reduced 
to two, as in genus Dianther a, didynamous or diandrous, epipetalous; 
pistil bicarpellate; ovary two-celled, superior, with numerous cam- 
pylotropal ovules; style terminal, filiform. Fruit a capsule contain¬ 
ing numerous curved seeds. The family is of pharmaceutic interest 
mainly because of Ruellia ciliosa, a pubescent perennial herb growing 
in the Eastern United States, whose rhizome and roots have fre¬ 
quently been admixed with or substituted for Spigelia. 

Verbenacece or Vervain Family. —Herbs {Verbena), Shrubs (Clar- 
odendron), rarely trees ( Tectona or Teak-wood) whose stems and 
branches are usually quadrangular and rarely scented. Leaves 
generally opposite, exstipulate, simple or compound. Inflorescence 
a terminal panicle of spikes ( Verbena hastata ), a cyme ( Callicarpa) 
or head ( Lippia lanceoiata). Flowers white, pink or blue ( Verbena 
hastata) irregular, more or less 2-lipped; calyx gamosepalous, 
tubular; corolla gamopetalous, hypogymous with a 4-5 fid limb; 
stamens generally 4, didynamous and inserted on the corolla tube 
or throat; pistil of 2-4 carpels, a terminal style and undivided stigma. 
Fruit a drupe or 2 to 4 celled berry, usually splitting into as many 
nutlets. Seeds exalbuminous. 

Official drug Part used Botanical origin Habitat 

Verbena N. F. Overground portion Verbena hastata United States 

Labiatce {.Lamiacece) or Mint Family. —Herbs producing creeping 
runners that spread out and root at the nodes. Stems quadrangular, 
rarely cylindrical in outline. Leaves opposite, decussate, mainly 
petiolate; leaf margin nearly always serrate, dentate or crenate. 
Stems and leaves further characterized by the presence of glandular 
hairs containing aromatic volatile oil. These hairs consist of a 
short one-celled stalk and a head (gland) of six or eight cells. Inflo¬ 
rescence a raceme or spike of verticillasters (double dichesial cymes) 
or, as in the Ground Ivy, a reduced verticillaster. Flowers typically 


396 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


pentamerous, rarely tetramerous; sepals five, synsepalous, ribbed 
and forming a tubular regular or irregular bilabiate (Scullcap, etc.) 
calyx whose upper lip is bifid and lower trifid; corolla of five to four 
gamopetalous petals, hypogynous, frequently two-lipped, the upper 
lip bifid, the lower trifid; stamens four, didynamous, rarely one pair 
alone fertile and the other pair reduced, in some cases almost or 



I 

Fig. 231 .—Mentha piperita —’Flowering branch. (Sayre.) 

quite to disappearing point (Salvin and Monarda ); pistil bicarpellate, 
embryologically two-celled with two ovules in each cavity, becoming, 
at time of flowering, four-celled with one ovule in each cavity. Style 
embryologically terminal, but, upon opening of flower, deeply gyno- 
basic, elongate, slender with two stigmatic surfaces. Fruit four 
nutlets enclosing as many exalbuminous seeds. 




TAXONOMY 


397 


Official drug 

Part used 

Botanical origin 

Habitat 

Mentha Piperita 

Leaves and 
flowering tops 

Mentha piperita 

Europe 

Mentha Viridis 

Leaves and 
flowering tops 

Mentha spicata 

Europe 

Scutellaria N.F. 

Entire plant 

Scutellaria lateri- . 
flora 

United States and 
Canada 

Oleum Thymi 

Volatile oil from 
flowering plant 

Thymus vulgaris 

Southern Europe 

Oleum Rosmarini 

Volatile oil from 

Rosmarinus 

Mediterranean 


fresh flowering 
tops 

officinalis 

Basin 

Oleum Lavendulae 

Volatile oil from 
fresh flowering 
tops 

Lavendula vera 

Southern Europe 

Cataria N.F. 

Unofficial 

Leaves and 
flowering tops 

Nepeta Cataria 

Europe and Asia 

Salvia 

Leaves 

Salvia officinalis 

Southern Europe 

Marrubium 

Leaves and 
flowering tops 

Marrubium vulgare 

Europe and Asia 

Hedeoma 

Leaves and 
flowering tops 

Hedeoma pulegioides United States and 
Canada 

Herba Majoranae 

Leaves and 
flowering tops 

Origanum Majorana Mediterranean 
regions 

Collinsonia 

Rhizome and 

Collinsonia 

United States 


roots 

canadense 


Serphyllum 

Leaves and 
flowering tops 

Thymus Serphyllum Europe and Asia 

Melissa 

Leaves and 
flowering tops 

Melissa officinalis 

Southern Europe, 
Asia Minor 

Monarda 

Leaves and 
flowering tops 

Monarda punctata 

United States 

Origanum 

Leaves and 
flowering tops 

Origanum vulgare 

Europe, Asia and 
North Africa 

Hyss’opus 

j 

Leaves and 
flowering tops 

Hyssopus officinalis 

Southern Europe 

Summer Savory 

Leaves 

Satureia hortensis 

Southern Europe 

Mountain Mint 

Leaves 

Pycnanthemum 

Montanum 

United States 

Sweet Basil 

Leaves 

Ocimum Basilicum 

Asia and Africa 

Oil of Spike 

Vol. oil 

Lavendula Spica 

Europe 

Motherwort 

Leaves and 
flowering tops 

Leonurus Cardiaca 

Europe 


398 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


V. Order Rubiales. — Rubiacece or Madder Family. —Herbs 
(< Galium, Mitchella , etc.), shrubs ( Cephalanthus , etc.), or trees ( Cin¬ 
chona species) with fibrous roots, sometimes, as in Cephaelis Ipecacu¬ 
anha, annularly enlarged. Roots, stems and to a less extent leaves 
rich in varied alkaloids, some of medicinal value. Leaves opposite, * 
entire, stipulate and interpetiolate. Inflorescence a raceme of 
dichesial cymes occasionally condensing to scorpioids. Flowers 
perfect, often dimorphic, pentamerous or tetramerous; sepals five 
{Cinchona, etc.) but four in Galium , small, green, subtended With 
other flowers by one or two or more enlarged petaloid bracts; petals 
five {Cinchona, etc.) to four in Galium, stellate, varying from shallow 
rotate to elongate tubular or funnel-shaped with stellate limbs; 
stamens five to four, epipetalous; pistil nearly always bicarpellate, 
rarely of five to four carpels; ovary inferior, two-celled with central 
placentation; styles either distinct with knob-shaped stigmas or style 
elongate, filiform, ending in bilobed stigmas. Fruit varied, a capsule 
in Cinchona, a berry in Cofee, a drupe, or frequently, as in Galium, 
dry and splitting into nutlets; seeds albuminous, each with a curved 
embryo. 


Official drug 


Part used Botanical origin 


Habitat 


Caffeina 

Feebly basic 

Coffea arabica 

Eastern Africa 


principle 

Cinchona Ledgeri- 
ana, C. Calisaya 


Cinchona 

Bark < 

and hybrids of 
these with other 

’ South America 



. Cinchona species 


Official drug 

Part used 

Botanical origin 

Habitat 


Cinchona Rubra Bark { } South America 

Coffea .Tort. N.F. Roasted seeds { } Eastern Afri£a 


Gambir 


Prepared ex¬ 
tract from de¬ 
coctions of leaves 
and twigs 


Ourouparia Gambir East Indies 


Ipecacuanha Root 


Cephaelis 
Ipecacuanha 
Cephaelis acuminata 


Brazil 

United States of 
Columbia 








TAXONOMY 


399 


Capri}oliacece or Honey Suckle Family. —Shrubs or rarely herbs. 
Leaves entire, opposite, exstipulate or with delicate, attenuate or 
filiform stipules. Inflorescence varying from a raceme of shortened 
cymes to a capitulum. Flowers varying from regular and small 



(, Sambucus , Viburnum, etc.) to increasingly large, slightly irregular 
and ultimately very irregular in some Loniceras and in a few Weige- 
las and allies; calyx pentamerous, superior; corolla superior, gamo- 
petalous, limb pentafid, small in Viburnum and Sambucus to 



400 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


elongate, tubular or irregular infundibuliform in Loniceras; stamens 
five, inserted on tube of corolla and alternating with corolla seg¬ 
ments; filaments equal or didynamous (in irregular flowers); ovary 
inferior, rarely five- to three-celled, usually three- or frequently two- 
celled; style terminal. Fruit a berry ( Viburnum ) from an inferior 
ovary, several celled, occasionally becoming one-celled with several 
to rarely one seed, or fruit a capsule ( Diervilla , Weigelia). Seeds 
albuminous. 


Official drug Part used Botanical origin 


Sambucus N.F. Flowers 
Viburnum 

Prunifolium ar 

Viburnum Opulus Bark 
N.F. 


( Sambucus canadensis 
\ Sambucus nigra 
Viburnum 
prunifolium - 
Viburnum Lentago 
Viburnum Opulus 
var. Americanum 


Habitat 

1 United States. 
/ Europe 
1 Eastern and 
\ central United 
I States 
United States 
and Canada 



VI. Order Campanulales.— 

Cucurbilacece or Gourd Family .— 
Herbaceous, very often annual 
(Colocynth , etc.), more rarely 
perennial ( Bryonia , etc.), some¬ 
times shrubby plants, the peren¬ 
nial and shrubby forms perennat- 
ing by swollen roots, some of 
which are heavy and tuberous. 
Stems very usually grooved and 
ridged, often provided with 
roughened and barbed hairs. 
Tendrils are frequently produced 
in the axils of leaves from tendril 
axillary buds (Pumpkin, Colo¬ 
cynth, Watermelon, Cucumber, 
Bryony, etc.). Leaves varying 
from entire, simple, usually del¬ 
toid to triangular through stages 
of trilobate, pentalobate, deeply palmatifid topalmatipartite to seldom 
approaching compound (Colocynth). Venation in nearly all cases 


Fig. 233. —Colocynth—Portion of 
vine and whole fruit. (Sayre.) 


TAXONOMY 


401 


palmate. Leaves thin, herbaceous, much expanded, often hairy. 
Vascular bundles of petioles, branches and stems, bicollateral. 
Inflorescence either of loose cymes or more frequently racemes or 
spikes or entire axillary inflorescence may become solitary axillary. 
Flowers pentamerous, very rarely tetramerous, monoecious (.Bryonia 
alba ) or dioecious (Bryonia dioica ); sepals five, gamosepalous, adnate 
to ovary; corolla of five, rarely four gamopetalous petals varying 
in size and shape from small to large campanulate or broadly cup¬ 
shaped (Cucumber) and in color from greenish-yellow to greenish 
white to pure yellow to yellowish-white to white; stamens typically 
five, epigynous, with anthers either joined by pairs or synantherous; 
carpels usually three; ovary inferior, one- to three-celled. Fruit a 
pepo (a berry from an inferior ovary with thick skin). Seeds flat 
and exalbuminous. 

Official drug Part used Botanical origin Habitat 


Bryonia N.F. 

Root 

f Bryonia alba 
\ Bryonia dioica 

| Europe 

Colocynthis 

Pulp of fruit 

Citrullus Colocyn¬ 
this 

Africa and Asia 
Tropics 

Pepo 

Seeds 

Cucurbita Pepo 
. (cultivated varie¬ 
ties) 


Elaterinum 

Principle from 

Ecballium 

Mediterranean 

Unofficial 

elaterium 

Elaterium 

region 

Watermelon Seed 

Seeds 

Citrullus vulgaris 

Southern Asia 

Momordica (Bal¬ 
sam apple) 

Fruit 

Momordica 

Balsamina 

East Indies 


Campanulacece or Bluebell Family .—Herbs of annual or more com¬ 
monly perennial growth rarely sub-shrubby or sub-woody,in habit, 
frequently with laticiferous tubes containing a milky juice. Stem 
upright or feeble and spreading. Leaves alternate, simple, exstipu- 
late. Inflorescence primitively a racemose cyme condensing into a 
raceme, to a sub-capitulum and ultimately to a capitulum. Flowers 
regular, campanulate to campanulate-elongate to elongate and deeply 
cleft in petals; sepals five, only slightly synsepalous, epigynous; petals 
five, campanulate to campanulate-tubular to tubular elongate 
to tubular and deeply cleft; corolla varying in color from greenish- 
26 


402 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


yellow to yellowish-white to white or again, from yellowish-purple 
(rarely through yellowish-pink or red) to purple to pure blue; 
stamens five, epigynous, usually free from corolla; nectary epigy- 
nous; pistil usually tricarpellary; ovary as many celled as number of 
carpels and with central placenta; style single elongate; stigmas as 
many as carpels. Fruit a capsule. Seeds albuminous. The.plants 
contain inulin. 

Lobeliacece or Lobelia Family. —Herbs, with inulin and latex con¬ 
tents, corresponding with Campanulaceoe in their vegetative parts, 
but differing from that group by having irregular flowers (pale blue 
in Lobelia inflata), anthers always synantherous and pistil always 
bicarpellate with two-celled ovary and bilobed or bilabiate stigma. 

Official drug Part used Botanical origin Habitat 

Lobelia Leaves and Lobelia inflata United States and 

flowering tops Canada 

VII. Order Aggregatae.— Valerianacece or Valerian Family .— 
Herbaceous often low succulent plants with creeping rhizomes, fre¬ 
quently strongly scented and possessing stimulating properties. 
Leaves frequently dimorphic; radical fascicled; cauline opposite; 
petiole dilated, exstipulate. Inflorescence a raceme of dichesial or 
scorpioid cymes. Flowers more or less irregular; calyx absent as 
such, but represented by a series of teeth that are incurved in the 
bud and flower and which expand later into a pappose crown and act 
in the fruit as a pappose disseminator; corolla pentamerous, gamo- 
petalous, varying from rotate synpetalous to irregular tubular with 
petals diversely united, in color varying from greenish-white to 
white or pink ( Valeriana officinalis) to crimson; stamens three to 
two or one ( Valerian ), epipetalous; pistil syncarpous; ovary usually 
one-celled* inferior; style filiform with three stigmatic surfaces. 
Fruit an akene from inferior ovary crowned by a persistent ex¬ 
panded pappose calyx rudiment. Seeds anatropous, exalbuminous. 

Official drug Part used Botanical origin Habitat 

Valeriana Rhizome and Valeriana officinalis Europe and Asia 

roots 

Compositce (. Asteracece) or Daisy Family. —Herbs, rarely shrubs or 
trees, of annual or perennial habit, and with watery or milky juice. 


TAXONOMY 


403 


Inulin is present in cell sap of parenchyma. Leaves alternate, rarely 
opposite, simple to compound, exstipulate. Inflorescence a capitu- 



Fig. 234 .—Valeriana officinalis —Plant and rhizome. (Sayre.) 


lum or a raceme of capitula, each capitulum surrounded by an in¬ 
volucre or protective whorl of bracts, and composed of numerous 





404 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


florets that maybe: (a) wholly regular, tubular and hermaphrodite 
(Thistle, etc.); or ( b ) central florets as in (a), but marginals strap¬ 
shaped or ligulate and usually pistillate (Daisy, Dahlia, etc.); or 
(c) florets all ligulate and hermaphrodite (Dandelion, Chicory, etc.); 
or ( d ) florets in part or in whole bilabiate (Mutisia, etc.). Flowers 



Fig. 235. —Capitulum of a composite Jerusalem artichoke (Helianthus 
tuberosus). A, lengthwise section of capitulum, X 1 , B, ray flower, X 6; C, disk 
flower, cut lengthwise, X 6. (A after Baillon, B and C, Robbins .) 

small (florets) closely crowded, pentamerous, shaped as above, with 
ovary inferior and other floral parts superior. Sepals rudimentary, 
tooth-like (Sunflower), or reduced to a pappose or hairy rudiment 
above ovary that is functionless during flowering, but that expands in 
fruit as a hairy fruit disseminator (Dandelion, Thistle, etc.); or 
sepals wholly absorbed (Daisy). Petals synpetalous, tubular, ligu- 










TAXONOMY 


405 


late or rarely bilabiate, greenish-yellow to white, or through pink- 
crimson and purple to blue (Chicory). Stamens five, epipetalous, 
filaments distinct, anthers united into an upright anther-box (so 
synantherous) into which pollen is shed before or during opening 



Fig. 236 .—Matricaria chamomilla —Branch and dissected flowers. ( Sayre .) 

of each floret. Carpels two, syncarpous, ovary inferior, one-celled 
with single ovule; style simple, at first short, later elongating and by 
collecting hairs sweeping pollen to top of anther box, then dividing 
into two stigmatic surfaces with stigmatic hairs for pollen reception. 





406 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Fruit an indehiscent achene often (Dandelion, Thistle) crowned by 
the pappose, calyx rudiment. Seed single, exalbuminous. 


Official drug 

Part used 

Botanical origin 

Habitat 

Lactucarium 

Dried milk juice 

Lactuca virosa Europe 

Arnica 

Flower heads 

Arnica montana Europe and 



northern Asia 

Matricaria 

Flower heads 

Matricaria Europe and 



Chamomilla 

western Asia 

Calendula N.F. 

Ligulate florets 

Calendula officinalis Mediterranean 




basin 

Senecio N.F. 

Overground 

Senecio aureus United States 


parts 

i '• < * 


Absinthium N.F. 

Leaves and 

Artemisia United States and 


flowering tops 

Absinthium 

Canada 

Eupatorium N.F. 

Leaves and 

Eupatorium North America 


flowering tops 

perfoliatum 

V 

Grindelia 

Leaves and 

f Grindelia camporum ) 

1 Western North 
| America 


flowering tops \ 

Grindelia cuneifolia 

1 Grindelia squarrosa 

Inula N.F. 

Rhizome and 

Inula Helenium 1 

iurope and Asia 


roots 

/ . Vvi’i i 


Taraxacum 

Rhizome and 

Taraxacum offici- Europe and Asia 

. 

roots 

nale 


Echinacea N.F. 

Rhizome and 

Brauneria pallida Central United 

f; 

roots 

.. " ■ f 

States 

Pyrethrum 

Root 

Anacyclus Northern Africa 



Pyrethrum 

and southern 

"i 


.. v. 

* v* N. 

Europe 

Lappa N.F. 

Root . 

Arctium Lappa and 

Europe and 



other species of 

northern Asia 

i f 

" 

Arctium 


Farfara N.F. 

Leaves 

Tussilago Farfara Europe 

Santoninum 

Inner anhydride 

Artemisia Russian 


of santonic acid 

pauciflora 

Turkestan 

Unofficial 

Anthemis 

Flower heads 

Anthemis nobilis 

Europe 

Pyrethri Flores 

Flower heads 

r Chrysanthemum ] 

l Dalmatia 


(unexpanded 

cinerariifolium J 

i Herzegovina 


or partly 

Chrysanthemum 



expanded) 

roseum 

Chrysanthemum 
. Marschallii 

• Western Asia 




TAXONOMY 


407 


Unofficial drug 

Part used 

Botanical origin 

Habitat 

Santonica 

Unexpanded 
flower heads 

Artemisia pauciflora Russian 

Turkestan 

Carthamus 

Tubular florets 

Carthamus 

tinctorius 

India 

Achillea 

Leaves and 
flowering tops 

Achillea millefolium Europe and Asia 

Tanacetum 

Leaves and 
flowering tops 

Tanacetum vulgare 

Europe 

Gnaphalium 

Leaves and 

Gnaphalium 

North America 


flowering tops 

polycephalum 


Cichorium 

Rhizome and 
roots 

Cichorium Intybus 

Europe 

Oleum Erigerontis Volatile oil 

Erigeron canadensis 

North America 


Fig.. 237.—Chicory (Cichorium Intybus). A, portion of flowering branch; B, 
basal ieat (runcinate-pinnatifid); C, median longitudinal section through a 
head, showing the insertion ot the flowers; D, individual flower; E, fruit (ripened 
ovary), showing the persistent pappus (calyx) of short scales. {Gager.) 






CHAPTER IX 


ECOLOGY 

Ecology is that department of biology which deals with the 
relations of plants and animals of various habitats to their environ¬ 
mental conditions. Every living thing is a creature of circumstance, 
dominated and controlled by heredity and environment. In order 
to exist and keep healthy it must adapt itself to the various factors 
of its surroundings. The environmental factors having to do with 
the existence and health of plants include soil constituents, air, 
moisture, light, range in temperature, gravity, surrounding animals 
and plants of other kinds. 

A group of plants occurring in a common habitat constitutes what 
is termed a plant association or society. Plant associations may 
be classified either from the point of view of their order of develop¬ 
ment, as based upon the principle of succession, or upon their water 
relation. The latter method, appears to be the one more generally 
adopted, because of its ready application and will now be considered. 

According, therefore, to the relation plant associations have 
assumed in regard to water, they may be grouped as follows: 

1. Hydrophytes or water plants. 

2. Helophytes or marsh plants. 

3. Halophytes or salt plants. 

4. Xerophytes or desert plants. 

5. Mesophytes or intermediate plants. 

6. Tropophytes or alternate plants. 

Hydrophytes. The effect of an aquatic environment on the struc¬ 
ture of water plants is most striking. The root systems are reduced 
both in length and number of branches. The root hairs of those 
immersed in the water are absent. The supportive action of the 
water is such that the fibrovascular elements of the stems, which 
usually function both for support and conduction of crude sap, 
are greatly reduced in size and strength. The leaves, stems and 
roots possess large air-spaces. The mesophyll of the leaves is 

408 


ECOLOGY 


409 


spongy and the chloroplasts motile. Stomata are entirely absent 
from leaves that are submerged and only present on the upper sur¬ 
face of floating ones, where they are nearly always open. Some of 
these plants have broad floating leaves and dissected submerged 
ones, often with thread-like divisions. The submerged parts are 
devoid of special protective walls e.g. those containing cutin or 
suberin. The cell sap has a low osmotic pressure. The submersed 
leaves often absorb more water than the roots. The free floating 
microscopic plants (blue-green algae, bacteria, diatoms, desmids, etc.) 
form the plankton of our ponds, rivers and lakes. The free-swim¬ 
ming higher plants (the pleuston) comprise certain liverworts 
like Riccia and Ricciocarpus, water-ferns and such seed plants as the 
water-lettuce and water-hyacinth. The aquatic plants including 
the algae, mosses and flowering plants, which live attached to rocks 
comprise the lithophilous benthos. Another class of aquatic plants 
(benthos) include those with true roots, which attach the plant to 
the substratum, and at most possess floating leaves. This type 
includes the water-lilies, the water-chestnut, the splatter docks, 
the floating-heart and the pondweeds. 

Helophytes.— To this group belong plants typical to marshes. 
A marsh is an area with wet soil, wholly or partially covered with 
water and with annual or perennial herbs (never shrubs and trees) 
which are adjusted structurally to a mucky soil, lacking the usual 
supplies of oxygen. These plants likewise show an adjustment to a 
partial or periodical submergence. Like hydrophytes, marsh plants 
are for the most part perennial. They produce adventitious roots 
and possess horizontal rhizomes, or runners, and frequently have 
air chambers in roots, stems and leaves, so that they are adapted 
to meet the scarcity of air in wet soils. They also show a striking 
development of erect chlorophyll-bearing organs in the shape of 
leaves, in the flags, and stems, in the rushes. 

The taller seed-like plants of the marsh-land, such as seed-grass 
(.Phragmites ), the bur-reed ( Sparganium ), the cat-tails ( Typha ), the 
blue flags {Iris), the sweet flag {Acorns calamus) and the papyrus 
{Papyrus) form associations known as fresh-water marshes, reed- 
marshes or fens. The channels or pools of water in amongst these 
amphibious plants are filled with true aquatic plants. 


4io 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Halophytes. —The plants of this group live in a soil which is rich 
in soluble salt, usually common salt (NaCl), and on account of the 
fact that the osmotic force of the root is nearly inadequate to over¬ 
come that of the concentrated solution of the soil, the soil to such 
plants is physiologically dry. A halophyte in fact is one form of 
xerophyte. The most striking feature among halophytes is that 
they are nearly all succulent plants. The leaves of such plants, for 
example, are thick, fleshy and more or less translucent. They are 
rich in concentrated cell sap by which they are able to counteract 
the osmotic pull of the concentrated saline solution of the soils 
in which they live. Anatomically they are poor in chlorophyll, 
the intercellular-air-spaces are small and the palisade tissue is 
more abundant. Coatings of wax are found and a hairy covering, 
although infrequent, sometimes occurs. Coriaceous and glossy 
leaves, especially in tropical halophytes, are noteworthy, while 
in many salt-loving plants the stomata are sunken. Halophytes 
are found in our coastal salt marshes and on saline tidal flats in tem¬ 
perate and tropical countries and on the alkali flats of the interior 
of continents. Notable examples of these plants are the Salt Marsh 
Samphire, Salicornia ambigua , the Mangroves (Rhizopora) and the 
Bald Cypress ( Taxodium ). 

Xerophytes.-— The plants of this group, like the halophytes, are 
adjusted to live in a soil which is physiologically dry. The soil may 
owe this condition to its physical nature, such as porosity (sand), 
or to the presence of humic acicfs, or by chemical action, which in¬ 
hibits the absorption of water. They are adapted to meet the con¬ 
ditions of strongest transpiration and most precarious water supply. 
To meet such conditions of physiological drought, the plants show 
various structural adaptations. In deserts, where the atmospheric 
precipitations are less than a certain limit, the plants acquire a 
xerophytic structure, such as succulency-, water storage tissue, 
associated frequently with mucilage, lignified tissues, thick cuticle 
to the leaves depressed, stomata (frequently in pits), reduced trans¬ 
piration surfaces and thorns. Mechanical tissues like wood and 
bast fibers attain their highest development in these plants. Cacti 
and the century plant (Agave) are types of xerophytes while many 
bog plants like the cranberry and Laborador tea, with leathery leaves, 
are xerophytic. 


ECOLOGY 


411 

Mesophytes. —These are plants* that grow in soil of an interme¬ 
diate character which is neither specially acid, cold or saline, but is 
sufficiently well supplied with water and rich in the elements re¬ 
quired for plant growth. Plants which grow under such conditions 
do not have structures by which transpiration is closely controlled, 
They have large leaves frequently toothed and incised, with numer¬ 
ous stomata usually on the lower surface and small intercellular -air¬ 
spaces. The leaves and stems are usually of a fresh green color. 
Typical of the mesophytes are the grasses and most of the annual 
and biennial herbs of temperate regions. 

Tropophytes. —This term was first introduced by Schimper in 
1898 for land plants which have deciduous leaves and whose condi¬ 
tions of life are, according to the season of the year, alternately those 
of mesophytes and xerophytes. The mesophytic condition is found in 
summer, when the trees, shrubs and perennial herbs, included in this 
group, are in full leafage, and when, owing to the regular supply of 
rain during the growing season, the soil is plentifully supplied with 
water to meet the demands of these plants during the period of active 
transpiration. During the winter they are xerophytes. The 
cold of winter freezes the water in the soil so that the transpiration 
is reduced to a minimum, and this is associated with the fall of the 
leaves of the trees and shrubs and the death of the overground parts 
of the perennial herbs which spring up each year from their under¬ 
ground parts. Th6 vegetation of cold temperate regions is mainly 
tropophytic. 

The deciduous trees and shrubs also known as the broad-leaved 
plants and the summer-green plants form the principal tropophytes. 
The deciduous forests, which include the oaks, the beeches, the 
ashes, the maples, the walnuts, the chestnuts, cover a great part of 
eastern and western China, central Europe (England, France, 
Belgium, Germany) and eastern Australia, and are coincident 
with the countries occupied by the most civilized races of man, such 
as the Americans, Europeans, Chinese and Japanese. The cold 
temperate climatic conditions which have determined the distribu¬ 
tion of the forest trees have been influential also in the development 
of the energetic races of mankind. * 


GLOSSARY 


Abor'tion. —The imperfect or non-development of an organ. 

Acaules'cent. —Without an obvious aerial stem. 

Achene' (akene).—A small, dry, one-celled indehiscent fruit in which the seed 
coat and pericarp (fruit wall) are not firmly attached. 

Achlamy'deous. —Destitute of calyx and corolla. 

Acic'ular. —Applied to crystals of calcium oxalate, etc. that are slenderly needle- 
r shaped. 

Acrop'etal. —Development from outside (below) toward the inside (above). 
Acu'minate. —Tapering gradually to a long point. 

Acute'. —Sharp-pointed, the point, being less than a right angle. 

Ad'nate. —Applied to the growing together of unlike parts. 

Adventitious. —Applied to roots and buds that are out of their ordinary position. 
Aestiva'tion. —Arrangement of the parts of the flower in the bud. 

Albu'men. —Nutritive material stored in the embryo, endosperm, or perisperm. 
Aitemate. —Applied to leaves, buds, etc. that are arranged singly (one after 
another) at the nodes. 

Albur'num. —Sap wood. 

Am'ent. —A scaly spike-like inflorescence. Another name for catkin. 
Amor'phous. —Without definite shape. 

AmphitTopous (ovules and seeds) .—Half-inverted and straight, with the 
hilum about the middle, and micropyle terminal. 

Amplex'icaul. —Clasping the stem. 

Anal'ogy. —Resemblance in function. 

Anastomo'sing. —Applied to veins that are connected with others by cross veins, 
so forming a network, as with the marginal veins of Eucalyptus. 
Anat'ropous. —Inverted ovules or seeds with micropyle adjacent to hilum. 
Androe'cium. —The male system of organs in a flower. 

Androg'ynous. —Applied to inflorescences composed of both staminate and 
pistillate flowers. 

Anemophi'lous. —Wind pollinated. 

Angiosperm'ous. —Having ovules and seeds borne within a box-like covering, 
the pericarp. 

An'nual. —Producing flowers, fruit and seed within a year from the time the 
seed germinated and then dying completely. 

An'nular. —Ring-like. 

Ante'rior. —The front region. 

An'ther. —That portion of a stamen which bears the pollen. 

An'theridium. —Male sexual organ of Thallophytes, Bryophytes and Pterido- 
phytes. 


412 


GLOSSARY 


413 


An'therozoid. —A male sexual cell formed within an antheridium. 

An'thophore. —A lengthened internode of the receptacle between calyx and 
corolla. 

Apet'alous. —Without petals, as in the oaks, etc. 

Apocar'pous. —Carpels separate and distinct. 

Apopet'alous. —Petals separate and distinct. 

Aposep'alous. —Sepals separate and distinct. 

Archego 'nium.—A multicellular female sexual organ. 

Ar'il. —An accessory seed covering outside of the testa and arising at or about 
the hilum, as in Euonymus. 

Ar'illode. —A fake accessory seed covering outside of the testa, as in Nutmeg, 
and arising from the dilatation of the micropyle. 

Aris'tate. —Having a stiff bristle-like termination. 

Ascend'ing. —Growing obliquely upward. 

As'cus. —Spore case of an Ascomycete fungus. 

Atavism. —Reversion to ancestral type. 

Auric'ulate. —Ear-like. 

Awn. —A bristle-like structure that branches along its axis. 

Ax'il. —Angle formed by branch, leaf or bud with the stem. 

Ax'illary. —In the axil. 

Bac'cate. —Berry-like. 

Barb. —A short bristle usually bent back. 

Bast. —Applied to the phloem region but mainly to the fibrous portion thereof. 
Beard'ed. —Furnished with long hairs. 

Ber'ry. —A fleshy fruit whose mesocarp and endocarp are fleshy and frequently 
succulent throughout, and with seeds imbedded therein, as tomato, capsi¬ 
cum, belladonna, etc. 

Bi. —A prefix of the Latin language indicating two, twice or doubly. 

Bien'nial. —Applied to plants that live for more than one year but not longer 
than two years. 

Bila'biate. —Two lipped. 

Blade. —Expanded part of a leaf. 

Bloom. —The whitish and waxy secretion of epidermal cells, as in the stems of 
Sugar Cane or the leaves of Cabbage. 

Bract. —A modified leaf, frequently scale-like, appearing on inflorescence axes. 
Brac'teole (bracteolar leaf).—A modified leaf found on pedicels. 

Bud. —A rudimentary stem. 

Bulb. —A very short scaly underground stem. 

Bul'bils. —Small underground bulbs, as in garlic. 

Bul'blets. —Small above ground bulbs, as in the tree onions. 

Cadu'cous. —Falling with the opening of the flower, as the calyx of Papaver. 
Ca'lyx. —The outermost whorl of floral leaves. 


414 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Cam'bium. —The growing meristematic layer of a vascular bundle. 

Campan'ulate. —Bell shaped. 

Campylo'tropous. —Applied to ovules or seeds that are curved so as to bring the 
apex and base near together. 

Canes'cent. —White or gray from a coating of fine hairs. 

Capiliit'ium. —A network of filaments among spores, as in slime molds, puff 
balls, etc. 

Cap'itate. —Shaped like a head. 

Caprification. —The process of pollinating figs artificially. 

Cap'sule. —A dry, dehiscent fruit of two or more carpels. 

Car'pel. —A transformed leaf bearing one or more ovules, a simple pistil; a part 
of a compound pistil. 

Car'pophore. —A slender stalk, the prolongation of the receptacle, to which 
the inferior akenes (mericarps) of the Umbelliferce are attached. 

Caryop'sis. —A dry, indehiscent, one seeded fruit of the grasses or cereals in 
which the fruit wall (pericarp) and seed coat firmly adhere. 

Cat'kin. —A scaly spike of flowers. 

Cau'date.—Tailed. 

Caules'cent.— : With an obvious aerial stem. 

Cau'line. —Pertaining to the stem. 

Centrifugal.—Applied to a flower cluster in which the terminal or central 
flower blossoms first. 

Centrip'etal. —Applied to a flower cluster in which the lower or outer flowers 
bloom first. 

Chaff. —The glumes and palets of grains; the scaly hairs on the stipes of ferns; 
the bracts subtending each floret in some heads of Compositae. 

Chala'za. —That portion of the ovule marked by the junction of the integuments 
with the nucellus. 

Chasmo'gamous.— Pertaining to flowers that regularly open. 

Chlamy'dospore. —Thick walled spore formed within the hyphae of smuts. 

Chlo'rophyll. —The green coloring matter of all green plants. 

Chloroplas'tid. —A protoplasmic body in the cells of green parts of plants con¬ 
taining chlorophyll. 

Chro'matin. —That portion of the nucleus which is readily colored by a basic 
dye. The substance that carries the hereditary characters from parent to 
offspring. 

Chromoplas'tid. — A protoplasmic body in the cells of certain parts of plants 
containing a pigment other than chlorophyll. 

Chro'mosome. —One of the bodies into which the chromatin of the nucleus is 
resolved during indirect nuclear division. 

Cil'ia.—Vibratory hair-like protoplasmic outgrowths of zoospores, bacteria, 
gametes, etc. 

Circumnuta'tion. —The repeated bending in different directions of the growing 
tips of stems of climbing plants. 


GLOSSARY 


415 


Cir'cinate.—Rolled inward from apex toward base, as the young leaves of ferns. 

Circumscis'sile.—Applied to the splitting open of capsules transversely into 
lid and pot portions. 

Clad'ode.—A flattened branch which somewhat resembles a leaf. 

Claw.—The narrowed base of some petals, as those of the Pink Family. 

Cleistog'amous.—Applied to flowers that never open but are self fertilized, as 
in some Polygalas and Violets. 

Coch'lea.—A spirally coiled legume. 

Coe'nocyte.—A multinucleate cell. 

Cohe'sion.—The union of parts of the same whorl. 

Co'hort.—A group of natural orders. 

Coleorhi'za.—A root sheath. 

Collat'eral.—Applied to fibrovascular bundles in which the phloem and xylem 
masses are arranged side by side. 

Collen'chyma.—Tissue composed of cells thickened at their angles. 

Columel'la.—The end cell wall of an aerial hypha that bulges into the sporan¬ 
gium; also applied to the axis of a capsule. 

Corumn.—The united stamens and carpels in Orchids. 

Co'ma.—A tuft of hairs, as found on the seeds of Milkweeds. 

Com'missure.—The contiguous surfaces of two carpels as in the flowers and 
fruits of the Parsley Family. 

Concen'tric.—Applied to several circles or whorls one within the other. Con¬ 
centric fibrovascular bundles are those in which the xylem mass surrounds 
the phloem mass or vice versa. 

Concep'tacle.—A sac bearing the fruiting organs in certain Algae and Fungi. 

Condu'plicate.—Folded together lengthwise as for example the bud leaves of 
the oak or peach. 

Conid'ia.—Asexual spores cut off from the ends of hyphae or sterigmata by 
Penicillium, Aspergillus, Peronospora, Claviceps, etc. 

Conid'iophore.—A hypha bearing conidia. 

Conjugation.—One of the sexual methods of reproduction where two like sexual 
cells unite to form a zygospore. 

Con'nate.—Applied to parts that have grown together, as the bases of two 
opposite leaves. 

Connect'ive.—The continuation of the filament of the stamen that connects the 
two lobes of the anther. 

Conni'vent.—Brought close together; converging. 

Con'volute.—Rolled lengthwise from one edge as the leaves in the buds of the 
Wild Cherry and Plum. 

Cor'date.—Heart shaped. 

Coria'ceous.—Leathery in texture. 

Coim.—A solid, swollen, fleshy underground stem. 

Corol'la.—The inner whorl of floral envelopes composed of petals. 


41 6 PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 

Coro'na. —A crown like appendage in the throat of the corolla, as in the flowers 
of Narcissus and Silene. 

Cor'tex. —That region in dicotyl and gymnosperm roots of primary growth and 
in roots and stems of monocotyledons between epidermis and endodermis, 
in dicotyl and gymnosperm roo^s of secondary growth or in barks between 
cork cambium and phloem. 

Cor'ymb. —A flat topped or convex centripetal inflorescence with the lowermost 
pedicels the longest. 

Cos'ta. —A rib. 

Cotyle'don. —A seed-leaf of the embryo. 

Crem'ocarp. —The peculiar fruit of Umbelliferce, consisting of two inferior akenes 
(mericarps) separated from each other by a carpophore. 

Cre'nate. —Applied to leaf margins having rounded teeth. 

Cren'ulate. —The margin with fine rounded teeth. 

Crib'riform. —Sieve like. 

Cru'ciform. —Applied to the corolla or the calyx of flowers, the parts of which are 
arranged in the form of a cross. 

Crusta'ceous. —Applied to the thallus of a lichen that closely adheres to the 
substratum. 

Cryp'togam.— A plant belonging to one of the divisions of the vegetable kingdom 
below the Spermatophytes. 

Crys'talloid. —A protein body found in the aleurone grains of seeds or under¬ 
ground parts. 

Culm. —A jointed stem of a grass or sedge. 

Cu'neate. —W edge-sha ped. 

Cu'pule. —Applied to the concave involucre enclosing the glans of an acorn but 
also to other cup shaped parts of plants. 

Cu'ticle. —A thin covering of a waxy substance called cutin on the outer wall of 
epidermal cells. 

Cus'pidate. —Tipped with a sharp rigid point. 

Cyme. —A more or less flat topped determinate inflorescence. 

Cy'mose. —Cyme-like. . 

Cytol'ogy. —The study of cells and their contents. 

Cy'toplasm. —The cell protoplasm outside of the nucleus. 

Decan'drous. —Having ten stamens. 

Decid'uous. —Applied to leaves which fall in autumn, to plants bearing such 
leaves and to the calyx and corolla which fall shortly after blossoming before 
the development of the fruit. 

Dec'linate. —Curved or bent downward. 

Decompound'. —Several times compounded, as the leaf-blades of Cimicifuga. 

Decum'bent. —Erect at base, then lying on the ground, with the end rising. 

Decus'sate. —Applied to opposite leaves when the pairs stand at right angles 
to each other along the stem. 


GLOSSARY 


417 


Dehis'cence. —Splitting open. 

Deliques'cent. —Applied to a tree whose trunk or main stem is lost in branches. 
Del'toid. —Having the shape of the Greek letter A. 

Den'tate. —Having broad acute marginal teeth pointing outward. 

Dentic'ulate. —Finely dentate. 

Dermat'ogen. —The generative tissue that gives rise to epidermis. 

Deter'minate. —Applied to inflorescences on which flowering begins with the 
terminal bud, thus ending the elongation of the stem bearing the flowers. 
Diadel'phous. —Applied to stamens whose filaments are united at their edges 
into two sets. 

Diageot'ropic. —Applied to a plant organ that assumes a horizontal position. 
Dian'drous. —Possessing two stamens. 

Di'astase. —A ferment found in germinating seeds and fungal hyphae which 
changes starch into maltose. 

Diehl amyd'eous. —Pertaining to flowers that possess both calyx and corolla. 
Dichog'amy. —The maturation of one set of sexual organs before the other. 
Dichot'omous. —F orked. 

Dic'linous.' —Pertaining to the stamens and carpels being found in separate 
flowers. 

Dicot'yle'don. —A plant whose embryo possesses two seed leaves or cotyledons. 
Dig'itate. —Referring to a compound leaf whose leaflets come off at the end of 
the petiole. 

Dimor'phism. —Having two forms of flowers, one with long styles and short 
stamens, the other with short styles and long stamens; the occurrence of 
two distinct forms. 

Dioe'cious.—Applied to species having two kinds of individuals, male and 
female. 

Dissect'ed. —Cut deeply into numerous divisions. 

Dissep'iment. —A partition separating cells in a compound ovary or fruit. 
Dis'tichous. —Pertaining to the arrangement of leaves in two rows. 

Divi'ded. —Segmented to the mid-rib or base. 

Dorsoven'tral. —Having distinct upper and lower surfaces. 

Dor'sum. —Tlie back of an organ. The lower surface of a foliage or floral leaf. 
Down'y. —Covered densely with soft hairs. 

Drupe. —A one-celled, one-seeded fruit whose endocarp is stony. 

Drupe'let. —A small drupe. 

Duct. —A tubular element found in the xylem region of a fibrovascular bundle. 
Dura'men. —Heartwood. 

E- or Ex-, A prefix meaning devoid of, outside of, or away from. 

Eccen'tric. —Deviating from the center. Applied to the hila of starch grains 
which are outside of the center, also to woody plants which develop more 
rapidly on one side than on the other. 

Echin'ulate. —Beset with small prickles or spines. 

7 


418 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Ecli'inate. —Beset with prickles or spines. 

Ec'toplasm. —A clear layer of protoplasm just beneath the cell wall. 

Egg-Appara'tus.—The ovum and two synergids at the micropylar end of the 
embryo sac. 

ETater. —An elastic spiral filament attached to the spores of some Liverworts 
and Horsetails and aiding in their dispersal when mature. 

Emar'ginate. —Notched at the apex. 

Em'bryo. —A rudimentary plant found whhin the seed. 

Embryol'ogy. —The study of the embryo and its development. 

Em'bryo-sac. —A large cell within the nucleus of the ovule in which the embryo 
is formed after fertilization. 

En'docarp. —The inner layer of the pericarp. 

Endoder'mis.— A layer of cells forming the innermost boundary of the cortex 
and surrounding the fibrovascular region. 

En'dogen. —A Monocotyledon. 

Endogenous. —Applied to the axes of Monocotyl plants that do not increase 
materially in diameter. 

En'dophyte. —A plant which grows within the tissues of another. 

En dosperm. —A mass of cells formed in the embryo sac of ovules as they manure 
to form seeds. 

En'dospore —The inner wall of a spore. 

Endothe'cium. —A zone of one or more layers within the exothecium of an anther 

En'siform. —S word-shaped. 

Entomoph'ilous. —In sect pollinat ed. 

En'tophyte. —See Endophyte. 

Ephem'eral. —Lasting for a brief period (a day or so). 

EpicaTyx. —A whorl of bracts resembling the calyx but below it. 

Epi'carp.—The outer layer of the pericarp. 

Epicot'yl. —The portion of the embryo axis above the cotyledon or cotyledons. 

Epider'mis. —The outer covering layer of ceUs of plants, sometimes later replaced 
by cork. 

Epig'ynous. —Applied to floral leaves that appear to be inserted upon the ovary. 

Epipet'alous. —Upon the corolla. 

Ep'iphyte. —An air plant. A plant growing on another plant but not necessarily 
nourished by it. 

Epithe'lium. —A delicate layer of cells lining an internal cavity. 

Eq'uitant. —Applied to leaves, as in Iris, when they all spring from a rhizome 
and are successively folded on each other toward their bases. 

Eryth'rophyll. —The red coloring matter of leaves. 

Estiva'tion (Aestivation).—The arrangements of the floral organs in the flower 
bud. 

Etae'rio.—An aggregate fruit like the Raspberry or Blackberry, the product 
of a single flower, consisting of an aggregation of drupelets on a receptacle. 

E'tiolation. —The bleaching of green parts of plants when kept in the dark for 
some time. 


GLOSSARY 


419 


Evolu'tion. —The presumable theory that all forms of living things existing today 
have been derived from others previously existing, either by direct descent 
or by common ancestry. 

Exalbu'minous. —Applied to a seed in which the nourishment is stored in the 
embryo during the growth of seed from the ovule stage. 

Excen'tric. —See Eccentric. 

Excres'cence. —A morbid outgrowth. 

Excre'tion. —Getting rid of nitrogenous waste. 

ExcurTent. —Applied to trees, the main stems of which do not disappear in 
branches but grow erect to the summit ending in a terminal bud. The 
opposite of Deliquescent. 

Exfoliate. —To shed layers of bark. To cast off layers of tissue. 

Ex'ine. —The outer wall of a pollen grain. 

Ex'ocarp. —The outer layer of the pericarp. 

Exog'enous. —Applied to the axes of Gymnosperms and Dicotyledons which 
increase materially in diameter. 

Ex'ogens. —Plants with exogenous axes. 

Exospor'ium. —The outer wall of a spore. 

Exert'ed. —Applied to stamens that protrude from the throat of the corolla. 

Exstip'ulate. —Without stipules. 

Ex'tine. —The outer coat of a pollen grain. 

Extrorse'. —Applied to anthers which face outward, away from the gynoecium. 

Face. —The free surface of an organ. 

Fal'cate. —Scythe or sickle-shaped. 

Family.— A sub-division of an order. 

Farina'ceous. —Starchy or mealy. 

Fas'cicle. —A bundle or cluster. 

Fascic'ular. —Belonging to a bundle. 

Fasciculate. —Clustered. 

Fec'ula. —The nutritive part of a cereal. 

Fer'tile. —Producing fruit or reproductive organs. Applied to flowers which 
contain functionally active stamens and carpels. 

Fertiliza'tion. —That method of reproduction characterized by the union of two 
dissimilar gametes. 

Fi'brous. —Fiber-like. Referring to root systems composed of many slender 
rootlets. 

Fibrovas'cular Bun'dle. —A stringy group of fibers, vessels and cells coursing 
through the various organs of the higher plants and serving for support 
and conduction of sap. 

Fil'ament. —The stalk of a stamen; a thread like structure. 

Filamen'tous. —Thread-like. 

FiTiform. —Thread-like. 

Fim'briated. —F ringed. 


420 PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 

Fis'sion. —A form of division in which the cell separates into two equal or nearly 
equal parts. 

FlagelTum. —A whip like protoplasmic outgrowth of certain organisms or of 
zodspores, serving as an organ of locomotion. 

Folia'ceous.—Leaf-like. 

Fol'licle. —A one chambered dry fruit that dehisces along one suture only. 
FovilTa. —The contents of a pollen grain. 

Frac'ture. —The manner in which a root or other plant part breaks when sub¬ 
jected to sufficient pressure. 

Frond. —The leaf of a fern. 

Fruit.—A matured pistil, or ovarian portion thereof together with any closely 
adhering part. 

Fru'ticose. —Shrubby. 

Fuga'cious. —Falling off early. 

Fundamental Tis'sue. —Ground-tissue. The tissue of plants through which 
the fibrovascular bundles course. 

Funic'ulus. —The stalk of an ovule. 

Fur'cate. —F orked. 

Fu'siform. —Enlarged in the middle and tapering toward either end. 

Gal'balus. —A berry-like cone, as in Juniper us, formed by the coalescence of 
fleshy scales. 

Ga'leate. —Helmet shaped. 

Gam'ete. —A sexual cell. 

Gam'etophyte. —The sexual generation. 

Gamopet'alous. —Applied to a flower whose corolla is composed of petals which 
are more or less united at their edges. 

Gamosep'alous. —Having the sepals more or less united at their margins. 
Gem'ma. —An asexual bud-like structure found in the capules of Liverworts. 
Gemma'tion. —The process of budding as seen in the yeasts. 

Gen'era. —Plural of genus. 

Genic'ulate. —Kneed. 

Geot'ropism. —Response to the stimulus of gravity. 

Germina'tion. —The sprouting of a spore or seed. 

Germ Cell. —A reproductive cell as distinguished from a somatic or body cell. 
Gills. —The spore bearing plates of a toadstool. 

Gla'brous. —Smooth. 

Gland. —A secreting structure. 

Gians. —A nut. 

Glau'cous. —Covered with a bloom. 

Glo'boids. —Small granules of calcium-magnesium phosphate found in aleurone 
grains 

Glob'ular. —Spherical. 

Glom'erule. —A head-like cyme. 


GLOSSARY 


421 


Glume. —A floral bract of the grasses and sedges. 

Glu'ten. —The proteid matter of cereals. 

Gonidium. —Applied to the algal cells in lichens as well as to many forms of 
asexual reproductive bodies in flowerless plants 

Gon'ophore. —An upgrowth of the receptacle between the corolla and stamens, 
as in Passiflora. 

Gynceci'um. —The female sexual system of a flower. 

Gyn'ophore. —An upgrowth of the receptac’e between gynoecium and androe- 
cium as in Geum. 

Gynoste'mium. —The united stamens and style. The column of orchids. 

Hab'itat. —The original home o f a plant. 

Has'tate. —Shaped like the head of a halberd, the basal lobes diverging. 

Head. —An indeterminate form of inflorescence, as seen in the Daisy family, in 
which the flowers are in a dense cluster on the receptacle. 

Heliot'ropism. —Response to the stimulus of light. 

HerbaTium. —A classified collection of dried plant specimens. 

Hermaph'rodite. —Applied to flowers which contain both sets of essential organs, 
not necessarily functionally active. 

Hesperid'ium. —A large thick-skinned succulent fruit like the orange, lemon or 
grape-fruit. 

Heterocyst. —A large cell, occurring in the filaments of Nostoc. 

Heterophyllous. —Having more than one kind of foliage-leaves on the same 
plant. 

Heteros'porous. —Producing asexual spores of more than one kind as in Selagi- 
nella and the rusts. 

Hex. —A prefix of Greek origin meaning six. 

Hexag'ynous. —Having six carpels or styles. 

Hexam'erous. —Having the parts of the flower in 6’s. _ 

Hexan'drous. —Having six stamens. 

Hibernation. —Passing the winter in a dormant state of existence. 

Hi'lum. —The scar of a seed, after the stalk of the ovule has fallen off. Also 
applied to the point of origin or growth of a starch grain. 

Hip. —The fruit of a Rose, consisting of a number of akenes surrounded by a 
ripened concave receptacle. 

Hirsute. —Covered with numerous long coarse hairs. 

His'pid. —Beset with erect stiff hairs, as Borage. 

Histol'ogy. —The study of tissues with the aid of the microscope. 

Homol'ogous. —Having the same structural nature. 

Homos'porous. —Producing asexual spores of only one kind. 

Hy'brid. —A cross between two varieties or species, rarely between two genera 
of the same family. 

Hydroph'ilous. —Applied to flowers that are pollinated through the agency of 
water currents. 


422 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Hy'drophyte. —A water-plant. 

Hydrot'ropism. —The response of a plant organ to the stimulus of moisture. 

Hygroscop'ic. —The property possessed by certain cells or substances of absorb¬ 
ing moisture with avidity. 

Hyme'nium. —A spore bearing membrane of a fungus. 

Hy'pha. —A filament of the mycelium of a fungus. 

Hypo.—A prefix of Greek origin meaning under. 

Hy'pocotyl.—That part of an embryo p’antlet below the cotyledon or coty¬ 
ledons. 

Hypocrater'iform. —Applied to a calyx or corolla when the tube is long and 
slender and abruptly expands into a flat limb. 

Hypoder'mis. —That portion of a plant organ directly beneath the epidermis. 

Hypoge'ous. —Beneath the surface of the soil. 

Hypothe'cium. —That portion of a thallus of a lichen directly beneath or around 
the apothecium. 

Hypog'ynous. —Applied to the insertion of various floral parts on the receptacle 
and beneath the pistil. 

Id'ioblast. —A cell which differs materially in form, size, character of cell wall, 
or contents from its neighbors in a tissue. 

Imbibi'tion. —The taking in of water by organic bodies in such a manner as to 
cause them to swell up. 

Im'bricate. —Overlapping like shingles. 

Immersed'. —Growing entirely under water. 

Imparipin'nate. —Applied to a pinnately compound leaf terminating with a single 
leaflet. 

Indefinite. —Applied to stamens and other organs of the flower, when too 
numerous to be conveniently counted. 

Indehis'cent. —Not splitting open in a definite manner when ripe. 

Indig'enous. —Native. 

Indu'sium. —An outgrowth of the lower epidermis of many ferns that covers 
the cluster of sporangia. 

Inequilat'eral. —Having unequal sides. 

Inflores'cence.'— The arrangement of the flowers on a plant. 

Infundib'uliform. —Funnel shaped. 

Innate'. —Applied to anthers that are attached by their base to the summit of 
the filament. 

Integ'ument. —A covering. 

Intercellular. —Between the cells. 

Interfacic'ular. —Applied to a cambium layer which extends from one fibro- 
vascular bundle to another in the stems of Dicotyledons and Gymnosperms. 

In'temode. —That portion of the stem between two nodes. 

Interrup'tedly-Pin'nate. —Applied to a pinnate leaf that has either smaller or 
larger leaflets between those of usual size. 


V 


GLOSSARY 


423 


In'tine. —The inner coat of the pollen grain. 

In'tra. —A prefix meaning within. 

Intrapet'iolar. —Applied to stipules that are between the petiole and the stem; 
also to buds that are beneath or inside of the base of the petiole. 

Introrse'. —Applied to anthers that face toward the gyncecium. 

Intussuscep'tion. —The formation of additional particles of protoplasm between 
those already present. 

In'ulin. —A carbohydrate substance isomeric with starch found in the Compos- 
itae and some other families. 

In'volucre. —A whorl (or whorls) of bracts subtending a flower or flower cluster. 

Invol'ucel.—A secondary involucre. 

In'volute. —Applied to the arrangement of leaves within a bud when they are 
rolled inward from both sides. 

Irritabil'ity. —That property of living matter whereby it responds to a stimulus. 

Isog'amy. —The union of sexual cells of similar form. 

Isom'erous. —Having the same number of parts in each whorl. 

Isostem'onous. —Having the stamens and petals each in one whorl and of the 
same number. 

Isth'mus. —Applied to the constricted portion between the two half cells in 
certain desmids. 

Karyokine'sis. —Indirect nuclear division. 

Katab'olism. —Destructive metabolism. 

Keel. —Applied to a longitudinal ridge or elevation of cortical tissue of Senega 
root which extends from the crown downward. Also applied to the two 
inferior petals of a papilionaceous corolla which are more or less united into 
a body resembling the keel of a boat. 

Knee. —A form of knot which projects upward into the air from the roots of cer¬ 
tain trees that grow in wet soil notably the bald cypress. 

LabeTlum. —The large lip-like lower petal in the flower of an orchid. 

La'biate. —Two lipped. 

La'bium. —The lower lip of a labiate flower. 

Lacin'iate. —Applied to the margins of leaves which are deeply cut into irregular 
narrow lobes. 

LameTla. —A little plate. Applied to the layers of carbohydrate material in a 
starch grain which surround the growing point; also to the gills of a toad¬ 
stool. 

Lam'ina. —The blade or expanded part of any leaf. 

La'nate. —Covered with long curled wool-like hairs. 

Lan'ceolate. —Lance shaped. 

La'tex. —The milk juice of a plant. 

Laticif'erous. —Applied to the latex carrying tissue of a plant. 

Latifo'liate. —Possessing broad leaves. 


424 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Leaf. —An expansion of the stem or branch in whose axil one or more branches 
arise. 

Leaf'let.— A division of a compound leaf. 

Leaf-Trace. —A fibro vascular bundle while on its way from the stem bundle to 
the leaf. > 

Leg'ume. —A dry, simple capsular fruit formed of a single carpel and dehiscent 
by both ventral and dorsal sutures. 

Len'ticels. —Fissures in the cork of Dicotyledons formed by the swelling up and 
rupture of secondary cortex cells beneath. 

Lentic'ular. —Having the shape of a double convex lens. 

Leu'coplast. —A colorless plastid found in the cells of plants not exposed to light. 

Li'ane. —A woody climber or twiner of tropical forests. 

Li'ber. —The inner bark or phloem region of Gymnosperms and Dicotyledons. 

Li'briform-Cells. —Those cells of the xylem that are thick walled and resemble 
bast-fibers. 

Lig'neous. —Woody. 

Lig'nified. —Covered with deposits of lignin. 

Lig'nin. —A substance that adheres to the cellulose walls of certain cells and 
which is characterized by taking on a reddish coloration with phloroglucin 
and hydrochloric acid. 

Lig'ulate. —Strap shaped. 

Lig'ule. —A membranous appendage at the summit of the leaf-sheath in many 
grasses and cereals; a strap shaped corolla of a Composite. ^ 

Liguliflo'rous. —Applied to Compositae flower heads, as those of Dandelion and 
Chicory, which contain ligulate florets only. 

Limb. —The spreading portion of a gamosepalous calyx or a gamopetalous 
corolla. 

Line. —One-twelfth of an inch. 

Lin'ear. —Many times longer than broad and with nearly parallel rfiargins. 

Lobe. —A division of a leaf or other flattened organ which is larger than a tooth 
but which is not a leaflet. 

Loc'ular. —Having a cavity or cavities. 

Loculici'dal. —Applied to the deshiscence of a capsule when it splits open along 
the dorsal suture. 

Loc'ulus. —A cell or cavity of an anther, ovary, or fruit. 

Lo'ment. —A modified jointed or multilocular legume that breaks open trans¬ 
versely into segments when mature. 

Lu'cid. —Clear. 

Lu'niform. —Half-moon or crescent shaped. 

Lu'rid. —Dingy-brown. 

Lutes'cent. —Yellowish. 

Ly'rate. —Applied to a piiinatifid leaf, as that of the Turnip, in which the term¬ 
inal lobe is the largest and the rest decreasing in size toward the base. 

Lysig'enous. —Applied to the formation of a type of intercellular-air-space 


GLOSSARY 425 

which originates through the breaking down of cell walls common to a group 
of cells. 

Macro. A prefix of Greek origin meaning large. 

Macrosporan'gium. —A spore case containing one or more macrospores. (The 
nucellus in Spermatophytes.) 

Mac'rospores. —The larger of the two different kinds of spores produced by some 
of the higher Pteridophytes and the Spermatophytes. (The embryo-sac 
in Spermatophytes). 

Macrospo'rophyll. —The leaf bearing the macrosporangium. (The carpel in 
in Spermatophytes.) 

Mac'ulate. —Spotted. 

Ma'millate. —Bearing teat-like protuberances. 

Marces'cent. —Withering but not falling, dropping off. 

Marine'. —Applied to plants which grow in the sea or ocean. 

Medul'la. —Pith. 

Med'ullary. —Pertaining to the pith. 

Med'ullary Rays. —Strands of parenchyma connecting the cortex with the pith 
or a portion of the xylem with a portion of the phloem. 

Megasorus. —The ovule. 

Megasporan'gium. —See macrosporangium. 

Megaspore. —See macrospore. 

Mem'branous. —Thin, soft and flexile. 

Mer'icarp. —One of the two inferior akenes which are found with the carpophore 
making up the cremocarp in Umbelliferae. 

Mer'istem. —Formative tissue consisting of cells which in the living plant are 
in an active state of division. 

Meristemat'ic. —Consisting of generative cells or meristem. 

Mes'ocarp. —The middle layer of the fruit wall or pericarp. 

Mes'ophyll. —All of the leaf parenchyma within the epidermis. 

Mes'tome. —The conducting portion of a fibrovascular bundle. 

Metab'olism. —The sum total of all the chemical changes which take place in 
a living plant. 

Metagen'esis. —Alternation of generations. The production of sexual indi¬ 
viduals by asexual means and asexual or neutral individuals by sexual means. 

Metamor'phosis. —A change in the form or function of an organ or organism. 

Micro. —A prefix of Greek origin meaning small. 

Mi'crobe. —A minute vegetable or animal organism. 

Mi'cropyle. —The opening between the coats of an ov^e through which the pol¬ 
len tube enters. The orifice or foramen in the seed coat through which the 
hypocotyl passes during germination. 

Microso'mes. —Applied by Strasburger to minute particles in the protoplasm 
which have a high degree of refringency. 

Microso'rus. —A lobe of the anther. 


426 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Microsporan'gium.—A spore case containing microspores. An anther sac. 

Mi'crospore.—A small spore found in a microsporangium. The pollen grain of 
a seed plant. 

Microspo'rophyll.—A leaf bearing microsporangia. The stamen of seed plants. 

Mid'dle Lamel'la.—A dividing line of calcium pectate between adjoining cells. 

Mid'rib.—The large main central vein of a pinnately-veined leaf which is con- 
. tinuous with the leaf stalk. 

Mito'sis.—Indirect nuclear division. 

Monadel'phous.—Appffed to stamens which are united by their filaments into 
one set as in the Malvacea. 

Monan'drous.—Possessing only one stamen. 

Monan'thous.—Having only a single flower on the peduncle. 

MoniTiform.—Resembling a chain of beads. 

Mono.—A prefix of Greek origin, meaning one or single. 

Monocar'pellary.—Of one carpel. 

Monochlamyd'eous.—Possessing but one perianth whorl. 

Monoc'linous.—Having both androecium and gynceciun. 

Monocotyled'onous.—Having only one cotyledon or seed leaf. 

Monoe'cious.—Having separate staminate and pistillate flowers on the same 
plant. 

Monoloc'ular.—One chambered. 

Monom'erous.—Applied to flowers having one part running through each 
whorl. 

Monopo'dium.—A plant axis which elongates at the apex and sends off lateral 
branches in acropetal sequence. 

Monos'tichous.—Arranged in one vertical row. 

Mu'cronate.—Terminating abruptly in a small soft point. 

Multi.—A prefix of Latin origin meaning many. 

Multicel'lular.—Consisting of many cells. 

Multicip'ital.—Many-headed; applied to a rhizome or root from which numerous 
stems arise. 

Multifa'rious.—Composed of many diverse parts. 

Multiloc'ular.—Many celled or chambered. 

Multiple Fruit.—A fruit composed of many small fruits, each the product of 
a separate flower, as in the Fig or Hop. 

Myce'lium.—The vegetative body of a fungus consisting of intertangled hyphae. 

Mycol'ogy.—That branch of Botany that treats of the Fungi. 

Mycorrhi'za.—An association between the roots of certain plants and the myce¬ 
lium of certain fungi which form an investment about their tips. 

Na'piform.—Turnip-shaped. Somewhat globular, becoming abruptly slender 
and then terminating in a conical tap root. 

Naturalized.—Applied to plants that have been introduced from another 
country. 


GLOSSARY 


427 


Navic'ular.—Boat-shaped. 

Nec'tar.—A sweet secretion by the flower. 

Nec'tary.—The part of the flower which secretes nectar. 

Nerva'tion.—The arrangement of veins in a leaf. 

Neu'tral.—Said of flowers which possess neither stamens or carpels. Also 
applied to the asexual generation of plants. 

Niv'eous.—Snow-white. 

Node.—The place on the stem which normally shows outgrowths of a leaf, whorl 
of leaves or leaf modifications. 

Nodose'.—Having swollen joints or knobs. 

Nod'ule.—A small rounded body as a root tubercle. 

Nor'mal.—Usual. 

Non—Not. 

Nucel'lus.—The body of an ovule. 

Nuciferous.—Nut-bearing. 

Nu'cleus.—A dense region of protoplasm within the cell containing chromatin 
and usually definitely circumscribed. 

Nucle'olus.—A small body of dense protoplasm within the nucleus. 

Nut.—A dry, indehiscent, i-celled, i-seeded fruit with a stony or leathery 
pericarp. 

Nut'let.—A small nut. The characteristic fruit of the Labiata. 

Nutri'tion.—That branch of Physiology which includes the absorption, distribu¬ 
tion and assimilation of food stuffs. 

Ob.—A prefix of Latin origin signifying inversion. 

Obcon'ical.—Inversely cone-shaped. 

Obcor'date.—Inversely heart-shaped. 

Oblan'ceolate.—Lance-shaped with the broadest part toward the summit. 
Oblate'.—Flattened at the ends or poles. 

Ob'ligate.—Necessary, indispensable. 

Oblique'.—Taking a position between erect and horizontal as in the case of many 
stems. More developed on one side than on the other as in certain leaf 
blades. 

Ob'long.—Longer than broad with nearly parallel sides. 

Obo'vate.—Ovate with the attachment at the narrower end. 

Obtuse'.—Having a blunt or rounded end. 

O'chrea (o'crea).—A sheathing stipule. 

Ontog'eny.—The history of the development of an individual. 

O'ospore.-^The fertilized egg. 

Oper'culum.—The transversely dehiscent lid or cover of a moss capsule. 
Orbic'ular.—Circular. 

O r 'der.—A division of a class containing one or more families. 

Orthot'ropous.—Applied to ovules or seeds which are erect, with the micropyle 
at the -apex and the hilum coinciding with the chalaza, 


428 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


O'vary. —The lower part of a pistil or carpel containing the ovules. 

O'vate. —Shaped like a lengthwise section of a hen’s egg and having the attach¬ 
ment at the broader end. 

O'vule. —A transformed bud destined to become a seed after fertilization. 
O'vum. —The female sexual cell. 

Pal'ate. —A convex projection on the base of the lower lip of a personate corolla. 
PaTea ( Pal'et ).—An inner bract of a Grass inflorescence which with the lemma 
incloses the flower. 

Palea'ceous. —Chaffy. 

Palm— Pale. 

Pal'mate. —Divided or lobed in radiate fashion. 

Palmat'ifid. —-Palmately-cleft. 

Pandu'riform. —Fiddle-shaped. 

Pan'icle. —A compound raceme. 

Papiliona'ceous. —Having butterfly shaped flowers, as in the sub-family Papilio- 
nacecB of the Leguminosae. 

Pap'illose. —Bearing small nipple-shaped protuberances. 

Pap'pus. —The calyx of a Composite flower. 

Papyra'ceous. —Papery. 

Paraph'ysis. —A sterile filament found among reproductive organs in certain 
plants. 

Parasit'ic. —Growing upon or within and deriving sustenance from another 
living organism. 

Paren'chyma. —Soft cellular tissue whose units do not have tapering extremities. 
Pari'etal. —Situated on or pertaining to the wall of an ovary or pericarp. 
Part'ed. —Incised nearly to the mid-rib or base. 

Parthenogen'esis. —The production of an embryo from an unfertilized egg. 
Pathol'ogy. —The study of diseases. 

Pec'tinate. —Comb-like. 

Ped'ate. —Palmately parted or divided with two lateral lobes or divisions from 
each of which more or less linear divisions arise. 

Ped'icel. —A branch of an inflorescence axis supporting a single flower. 
Pedun'cle.— The main stalk of an inflorescence. 

Pellu'cid. —Transparent, clear. 

Pel'tate. —Shield shaped and attached by its lower surface to the support. 
Pen'dulous. —Hanging nearly vertically downward as in the case of some ovules 
that hang from the sides of a locule. 

Pentam'erous. —Applied to flowers having the number five or a multiple thereof 
running throughout each whorl. 

Pentan'drous. —Having five stamens. 

Pe'po. —A fruit of a Cucurbit; a gourd. 

Peren'nial. —Living more than two years. 

Per'fect. —Applied to flowers that contain both stamens and carpels. 


GLOSSARY 


429 

Perfoliate.—Applied to leaves which are united around the stem at their base. 

Perianth.—The floral envelopes, calyx and corolla or calyx alone when corolla 
is absent. 

Per'iblem.—A region of meristem lying between the dermatogen and plerome 
in the growing end of a root or stem. The meristem which gives rise to 
cortex. 

Pericam'bium.—A zone of meristematic tissue lying just within the endodermis. 

Pericarp.—The wall of a ripened ovary or fruit surrounding the seed or seeds. 

Pericla'dium.—A sheathing petiole. 

Perlcycle.—A zone of formative tissue lying outside of the fibrovascular region 
and inside of the endodermis. 

Periderm.—The cork tissue of plant axes. 

Peridlum.—The outer covering of certain fungus fructifications as puff-balls. 

Per'igone.—See perianth. 

Perig'ynous.—Applied to stamens and petals when they are adherent to the 
calyx throat, and so borne around the gynoecium. 

Perlsperm.—The nourishing tissue of some seeds outside of the embryo sac and 
representing the nucellus of the ovule, which, during maturation has be¬ 
come laden with nutriment. 

Peristome.—The teeth around the mouth of the capsule in mosses. 

Perithe'cium.—The receptacle containing asci in certain Ascomycetes. 

Persist'ant.—Applied to parts of the flower which remain until the fruit ripens 
or to leaves which remain on the plant over winter. 

Per'sonate.—Applied to a bilabiate corolla which has its throat closed by a con¬ 
vex projection on the base of the lower lip. 

Pet'al.—One of the floral leaves of the corolla. 

Pet'aloid.—Of some other color than green. Having the color of a petal. 

Petiole.—A leaf stalk. 

Pet'iolule.—The stalk of a leaflet. 

Phelloderm.—Secondary cortex containing chloroplasts formed by the cork 
cambium on its inner face. 

Phellogen.—The meristem-which gives rise to cork and frequently secondary 
cortex; cork cambium. 

Phlo'em.—That part of a fibrovascular bundle which contains sieve tissue and 
frequently bast fibers. 

Phloroglu'cin.—A white crystalline substance having the formula of C 6 H 6 0 3 , 
obtained by the decomposition of phloretin and from certain gummy ex¬ 
tracts and used with hydrochloric acid as a test for lignin. 

Phycocy'anin.—The blue pigment found in the Cyanophyceae (Blue Green Algae). 

Phycceryth'rin.—The red pigment occurring in the Rhodophyceae (Red Algae). 

Phycophae'in.—The brown pigment found in the Phycophyceae (Brown Algae). 

Phycoxan'thin.—A yellowish pigment occurring in some Algae. 

Phyllocla'de.—A flattened branch which resembles a leaf as in Ruscus. 

Phyllode.—A dilated petiole. 


430 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


PhylTotaxy.—The arrangement of leaves on stems. 

Phylloxan'thin.—See xanthophyll. 

Phylog'eny.—The history of the race. 

Physiology.—The science which treats of the functions of living organisms. 

Phy'ton.—A term given by Gaudichaud to an internode with a node at its upper 
extremity which bears one or more leaves, in the axils of which buds may 
appear. 

PiTeus.—The cap of a toadstool. 

Pilif'erous.—Bearing hairs. 

Pilose'.—Covered with long, straight and scattered hairs. 

Pin'nate.—Applied to compound leaves when the leaflets are arranged along the 
mid-rib. 

Pinnat'ifid.—Pinnately-clef t. 

Pinnatipar'tite.—Pinnately-parted. 

Pinnat'isect.—Pinnately-divided. 

Pin'nule.—A secondary pinna. 

Pi'siform.—Pea shaped. 

Pis'til.—The central female organ of a flower consisting of one or more united 
carpels. 

Pis'tillate.—Applied to flowers that possess one or more carpels but no fertile 
stamens. 

Placen'ta.—The nourishing tissue which connects the ovules with the wall of 
the ovary. 

Placenta'tion.—The arrangement of the placenta within the ovary or the peri¬ 
carp. * 

Plasmo'dium.—A multinucleated naked mass of protoplasm having amoeboid 
movement. The vegetative body of a Slime Mold. 

Plasmol'ysis.—A contraction of the protoplasm of a cell due to the extraction 
of contained water under the influence of reagents of greater density than 
the protoplasmic sap. 

Plas'tid.—Protoplasmic bodies of various shapes scattered about in the cyto¬ 
plasm. 

Ple'rome.—A meristem found in the apical regions of plant axes which gives 
rise to fibrovascular tissue. 

Pli'cate.—Folded like a fan. 

Plumose'.—F eathery. 

Plu'mule.—The rudimentary bud between the cotyledons. 

Pluriloc'ular.—Having more than one chamber or cell. 

Po'lar Body.—A portion of a gamete budded off before fertilization. 

Pol'len.—The fertilizingdust composed of cells produced in the anthers of 
flowers. 

Pollina'tion.—The transfer of pollen from anther to stigma and subsequent 
germination thereon. 


GLOSSARY 431 

Pollin'ium. —A coherent mass of pollen grains in Orchids and Milkweeds, ar¬ 
ranged as to be carried by insects. 

Poly. —A prefix of Greek origin meaning many. 

Polyadelphous. —Applied to stamens which are united by their filaments into 
many sets. 

Polyan'drous. —Having many stamens. 

Polyan'thous. —Many flowered. 

Polyarch. —Said of a radial fibrovascular bundle having many xylem and phloem 
rays. 

Polycar'pellary. —Composed of 3 or more carpels. 

Polycar'pic. —Fruiting successively. 

Polycephal'ic. —Bearing many heads. 

Poly cotyledon.— A plant such as a Conifer which possesses more than 2 cotyle¬ 
dons or seed leaves. 

Polyem'bryony. —Producing more than one embryo within a seed. 

Polyg'amous. —Applied to species in which staminate, pistillate and herm¬ 
aphrodite flowers are borne on the same plant. 

Polyg'onal. —Having several or many angles. 

Polymorphous. —Having several to many different forms. 

Polypet'alous. —Having distinct, disjoined petals. 

Pclyph'yllous. —Many-leaved. 

Polysep'alous. —Having distinct, disjoined sepals. 

Polys'tachous. —Having many spikes. 

Polystem'onous. —Possessing many more stamens than petals. 

Pome. —A fleshy indehiscent fruit, two or more carpelled, with fibrous cartilag¬ 
inous, or stony endocarp, the chief bulk Of which consists of an adherent 
torus. 

Preflora'tion. —See Aestivation. 

Prefolia'tion. —See Vernation. 

Prick'le. —A sharp, rigid outgrowth from the epidermis. 

Primor'dial. —First formed. 

Primor'dial U'tricle. —The outer plasma membrane. The outer layer of proto¬ 
plasm adjacent to the cell wall. 

Procam'bium. —The first formed fibro vascular tissue of any organ before differ¬ 
entiation has taken place into xylem and phloem. 

Procumbent. —Lying flat on the ground. 

Proem'bryo.— The primary stage in the development of Char a consisting of a 
single filament and a long rhizoidal cell. The suspensor in flowering plants. 

Promyce'lium. —A short hyphal growth from resting spores of smuts or rusts 
upon which basidiospores are borne. 

Prosen'chyma. —Tissue composed of elongated, taper-pointed Cells. 

Protan'drous. —A condition of hermaphrodite flowers in which the stamens 
mature before the carpels. 


43 2 PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 

Protog'ynous.—Applied to hermaphrodite flowers in which the carpels are mature 
before the stamens. 

ProthaTlus (Prothal'lium).—A thalloid body bearing antheridia and arche- 
gonia, produced by the germination of a spore of a Pteridophyte into a 
protonema which later undergoes differentiation. 

Protone'ma.—A simple or branched green filament formed by the germination 
of a spore of a moss or fern. 

Protophlo'em.—The first-formed phloem elements in a fibrovascular bundle. 

Pro'toplasm.—Living matter. 

Pro'toplast.—A term applied by Hanstein to the smallest body of protoplasm 
capable of individual action, either with or without a cell-wall, and either 
associated with other like units in a tissue or independent. 

Protoxy'lem.—The first formed elements of xylem in a fibrovascular bundle. 

Prox'imal.—Applied to the basal extremity. The attached end of an organ as 
opposed to the free or distal end. 

Pseudo.—A prefix of Greek origin indicating spurious or false. 

Pseudo-Bulb.—The fleshy bulb-like internode of an epiphytic Orchid. 

Pseu'docarp.—A fruit which represents the product of the ripening of a single 
ovary as well as one or more accessory parts. 

Pseudoparen'chyma.—A tissue consisting of the interlacing and compact 
hyphae of a fungus. 

Puber'ulent.—Covered with a fine, soft hairy coating. 

Pubes'cent.—Covered with soft, short hairs. 

Pulvi'nus.—An enlargement at the base of the petiole or petiolule of some leaves 
or leaflets, as in numerous Leguminosa. 

Punc'tate.—Dotted with small spots or minute pits. 

Pus'tular.—Applied to surfaces having blister- or pimple-like elevations. 

Puta'men.—The stony endocarp of a drupe. 

Pyre'noids.—Small, rounded, colorless, refractile granules embedded in the 
chromatophores of numerous Algae and thought to be starch forming centers. 

Pyx'is.—A capsule which dehisces transversely into pot and lid portions. 

Quad- or Quadri.—A prefix of La tin origin signifying four. 

Quadran'gular.—F our-angled. 

Quadrifo'liate.—Applied to palmate leaves which have four leaflets arising from 
the summit of the petiole. 

Quinquefol'iate.—Applied to any compound leaf that has five leaflets. 

Raceme'.—An indeterminate inflorescence having pedicelled flowers arranged 
along a lengthened axis. 

Rac'emose.—Arranged in racemes. 

Ra'chis.—The extended portion of a peduncle. 

Rad'ical.—Arising from the root or base of the stem. 

Rad'icle.—The rudimentary root of an embryo plantlet. 


GLOSSARY 


433 


Ra'mal.—Pertaining to a branch. 

Ra'mus.—A branch. 

Ramose'.—Branching. 

Rank.—A row of lea ves or other organs arranged vertically on a stem. 

Ra'phe (Rha'phe).—The adherent portion of the ovule stalk in inverted and half 
inverted ovules and seeds. 

Raph'ides.—Bundles of needle-shaped crystals. 

Recep'tacle.—The shortened stem upon which the whorls of floral leaves are 
inserted. 

Receptac'ular.—Pertaining to the receptacle. 

Rec'linate.—Bent downward. 

Reclin'ing.—See Reclinate. 

Recurved'.—Curved outward or backward to a moderate extent. 

Re flexed'.—Turned outward to backward more abruptly than Recurved. 
Reg'ma.—A capsular fruit of 2 or more carpels that first splits into separate 
parts and then each of these dehisces. 

Rejuvenes'cence.—Applied to a mode of reproductiou in which the protoplasm 
of the cell becomes rounded out, escapes by ruptnre of the cell wall, forms 
cilia and moves about, in time developing into a new lpant. 

Ren'iform.—Kidney-shaped. 

Repand'.—Having a slightly undulating margin. 

Re'pent.—Creeping. 

Re'plum.—A spurious membranous septum seen in Cruciferous fruits that per¬ 
sists after the valves have fallen away. 

Retic'ulate.—Applied to markings or veins which are in the form of a network. 
Refuse'.—Having a broad, shallow sinus at the apex. 

Rev'olute.—Said of leaves in the bud when their margins are rolled backward. ' 
Rha'phe.—See Raphe. 

Rhi'zoids.—Absorptive organs of certain plants below the Pteridophytes that are 
analagous with roots of higher plants. 

Rhizome'.—A creeping underground stem. 

Rhi'zomorphs.—Root-like structures composed of united hyphae and seen in 
certain fungi. 

Rib.—A prominent vein or ridge. 

Rin'gent.—Applied to the corolla of a bilabiate type whose throat is open and 
lips separated. 

Ripa'rious.—Growing along the banks of rivers or other water-courses. 

Rosette'.—A cluster of leaves or other organs. 

Ros'trate.—Beaked. 

Ro'tate.—Wheel-shaped. 

Rotund'.—Rounded in outline. 

Ru'fous.—Brownish-red. 

Rugose'.—W rinkl ed. 


28 


434 PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 

Ru'minate.—Applied to the albumen of certain seeds when the perisperm is 
found coursing through the endosperm in irregular fashion. 

Run'cinate.—Applied to a pinnately-cleft leaf whose lobes are directed back¬ 
ward as in the Dandelion. 

Run'ner.—A stem or branch which roots at intervals as it trails along the ground. 

Sac'cate.—Pouch-like. 

Sag'ittate.—Arrow-shaped. 

Sama'ra.—A winged fruit. 

Sap'rophyte.—An organism that lives upon decaying or dead organic matter. 

Sar'cocarp.—The fleshy portion of a drupe or other fruit. 

Sca'brous.—Said of leaves, etc. that are rough or harsh to the touch. 

Scalar'iform.—Applied to tracheae or tracheids whose walls show trausversely 
arranged bars, resembling the rongs of a ladder. 

Scan'dent.—Climbing. 

Scape.—A naked peduncle arising from a root or underground stem. 

Sca'rious.—Dry and membranous. 

Schiz'ocarp.—A fruit that separates when mature into 2 or more indehiscent 
mericarps. 

Schizogenous.—Said of intercellular-air-spaces or of reservoirs that are formed 
by the breaking down of the middle lamellae of cells where several come to¬ 
gether and the later separation of the cells at these places. 

Sci'on.—A shoot intended for grafting. 

Scleren'chyma.—Dignified tissue. 

Sclero'tium.—A hardened mass of mycelium. 

Scor'pioid.—Applied to certain cymes whose flowers are situated on alternate 
sides of the floral axis. 

ScutelTum.—A shield-shaped expansion of the hypocotyl of Graminea, which 
absorbs nouirshment from the endosperm during germination and bales it 
out to the rest of the embryo. 

Sec'undine.—The outer coat of the ovule. 

Seed.—A fertilized and matured ovule containing an embryo. 

Se'pal.—A leaf of the calyx. 

Sep'tate.—Possessing one or more partitions. 

Septici'dal.—A mode of dehiscence in which the opening occurs along the line 
of junction of the carpels. 

Septifra'gal.—A method of dehiscence in which the valves of a capsular fruit 
break away from the partitions or septa. 

Sep'tum.—A partition between cavities in an ovary or fruit or between cells in 
a tissue. 

Seric'eous.—Silky. Having a covering of fine, soft, appressed, silky hairs. 

Ser'rate.—Toothed with teeth projecting toward the apex. 

Ser'rulate.—Finely serrate. 

Ses'sile.—Without a stalk. 


GLOSSARY 


435 


Se'ta. —A bristle-like structure. 

Setig'erous. —Bristle bearing. 

SiTicle. —A short silique. 

Sil'ique. —The characteristic fruit of the Crucifer a, consisting of a capsule of 2 
valves which separate from the replum in dehiscence. 

Sin'uate. —Wavy margined. 

Soft Bast/ —The unlignified portion of the phloem. 

Somat'ic Cells. —The body cells of an individual, in distinction from reproductive 
cells. 

Sore'dium. —A scale-like structure found on many lichens and consisting of a 
group of algae cells surrounded by a network of hyphae. When detached 
from the parent-plant it has the power of developing vegetatively into a 
mature lichen. 

Soro'sis. —A multiple fruit, as represented by the Mulberry and Osage Orange, 
consisting of a swollen up, condensed and mature spike. 

So'rus. —An aggregation of sporangia. 

Spa'dix. —A fleshy spike more or less surrounded by a bract called a spathe. 

Spathe.— A large bract that encloses or subtends an inflorescence. 

Spat'ulate. —Said of flat leaves that are narrow at the base and become gradually 
broader toward the summit, which is rounded. 

Sperma'tophyte. —A seed plant. 

Spermatozo'id. —A male sexual cell. See Antherozoid. 

Spermatozo'on. —Another name for Spermatozoid or Antherozoid. 

Sper'moderm. —The covering of the seed. 

Sphace'lia. —The conidia stage of Claviceps. 

Spic'ate. —Arranged in a spike. 

Spic'ule. —A small pointed outgrowth. A needle-shaped crystal. 

Spike. —An indeterminate inflorescence consisting of sessile florets arranged 
along a lengthened axis. 

Spike'let. —A secondary spike. 

Spine. —A sharp, rigid termination of a branch as in the Honey Locust. A thorn. 

Spines'cent. —Spiny in structure. 

Sporadic.—Scattered. 

Sporan'giophore. —The stalk or support of a sporangium. 

Sporan'gium. —A spore case. 

Spore. —An asexual or sexual reproductive cell usually with a highly resistant 
cell wall. 

Sporogo'nium.— The asexual generation in Bryophytes and Pteridophytes. 

Spo'rophyll. —A spore bearing leaf. 

Spur. —A tubular or saccate appendage of some part of the flower, usually con¬ 
taining nectar. 

Squamose'. —Scale-like. 

Sta'men. —A male organ of the flower producing pollen. 

Stam'inode. —An abortive and sterile stamen, or any body without an anther 
occupying the normal place of a stamen. 


436 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Stel'late.—Star-shaped. 

Stem.—The ascending axis of a plant bearing leaves or leaf modifications. 

Ste'reome.—The supporting elements of a fibrovascular bundle. 

Ster'ile.—i. Unproductive, as a stamen without anther, flower without pistil, 
or pericarp without seeds. 2. Devoid of living organisms. 

Steriliza'tion.—The process of ridding an object of all living organisms. 

Stig'ma.—That part of a pistil or carpel which receives the pollen. 

Stipe.—The stem of a moss; the stalk of a fern frond; the stalk of a toadstool or 
other fungus. 

Stip'ulate.—Possessing stipules. 

Stip'ule.—A modified leaf, usually blade-like and situated at the base of the 
leaf-stalk. 

Stolon.—A slender running branch above or below the surface of the soil, either 
capable of taking root or bearing a bulb at its end. 

Stolonif'erous.—Bearing stolons. 

Sto'ma.—A breathing poire in the epidermis of higher plants. 

Stom'ata.—Plural for stoma. 

Stomat'al Cham'ber.—The intercellular-air-space directly beneath the stoma. 

Stri'ate.—Marked with fine longitudinal lines or grooves. 

Strigose'.—Covered with sharp and rigid appressed hairs. 

Strobile.—A scaly multiple' fruit consisting of a scale-bearing axis, each scale of 
which encloses one or more seeds. A cone. 

Style.—That portion of a pistil connecting the ovary with the stigma. 

Stylopo'dium.—The fleshy disk directly above the ovarian portion of an Um¬ 
belliferous fruit, formed by the expansion of the bases of the two styles. 

Sub.—A prefix of Latin origin meaning under, below, subordinate, nearly or 
partially. 

Su'ber.—Cork tissue. 

Subterra'nean.—Beneath the surface of the soil. 

Su'bulate.—Narrow and tapering to an acute end. 

Suc'culent.—Soft and juicy or fleshy. 

Suc'ker.—A shoot from the root or lower part of the stem or underground stem. 

Suffru'ticose.—Applied to stems or plants that are woody at their base and 
herbaceous above. 

Sul'cate.—Having longitudinal grooves. 

Supe'rior.—Said of an ovary that is not adherent to and above the calyx; also 
applied to a calyx which is situated on the upgrown receptacle above the 
ovary or to a tubular calyx whose limb appears to spring from the top of the 
ovary. 

Suspen'sor.—A row of cells, representing the first development of the fertilized 
egg of a seed plant, upon the end of which an embryo is formed. 

Su'ture,—The line of union of two carpels. The line of dehiscence. 

Swarm Spore.—A spore which possesses one or more cilia for movement. 


GLOSSARY 437 

Sycon'ium. —The characteristic multiple fruit of the Fig, which consists of a 
fleshy, invaginated receptacle bearing numerous akenes. 

Symbio'sis. —The living together of two individuals having a communion of life 
interests. 

Symmet'rical. —Said of flowers when the parts of each whorl are of the same 
number or multiples of the same number. 

Sympet'alous. —See Gamopetalous. 

Sym'physis. —A union of parts. 

Syncar'pous. —Said of fruits and gyncecia when they are formed of two or more 
united carpels. 

Syner'gids. —Two nuclei in the upper region of the embryo sac above the egg 
nucleus. 

Syngene'sious. —Said of stamens when their anthers are united. 

Syn'onym. —Another name for the same thing. 

Synsep'alous. —See Gamosepalous. 

Tab'ular. —Flattened from abov^ downward. 

Tape'tum. —A layer of cells lining the cavity of an anther sac. 

Tap-Root. —The main root coursing directly downward. 

Taxon'omy. —The science of classification. 

Teg'men. —The inner seed coat. 

Teleu'tospore. —A spore produced by the Rusts toward the close of the season 
which forms a promycelium the next year. 

Ten'dril. —A modified stem, stipule, leaf, or leaflet which has taken on the 
form of a slender appendage that is capable of coiling spirally around some 
object. 

Teratol'ogy. —The study of monstrosities. 

Terete'. —More or less cylindrical. 

Ter'minal. —Pertaining to the end or apex. 

Ter'nate. —In threes. 

Terres'trial. —Growing on land. 

Tes'sellated. —Marked like a checkerboard. 

Tes'ta. —The outer seed coat. 

Tetra. —A prefix of Greek origin signifying four. 

Tetracar'pellary. —Having four carpels. 

Tetradyn'amous. —Having six stamens, four of which are longer than the other 
two. 

Tetrag'onal. —Four-angled. 

Tetram'erous. —Said of flowers that have the number four or multiple thereof 
running through their various whorls. 

Tetran'drous. —Having four stamens. 

Tetrapet'alous. —Having four petals. 

Tetrasep'alous. —Having four sepals. 


438 PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 

Te'trarch. —Said of a radial fibrovascular bundle having 4 xylem and 4 phloem 
arms alternating with one another. 

Tet'raspores. —Applied to the asexually produced spores of the Floridea group 
of Red Algae on account of being formed in groups of four in the mother cell. 

Tetras'tichous.—Said of leaves when they are arranged in four vertical rows 
upon a stem. 

Thal'amus. —Another name for receptacle. 

Thal'lus. —A plant body showing no differentiation into root, stem, or leaf. 

Thennot'ropism. —Response of living matter to the stimulus of heat or cold. 

Thom.—See Spine. 

Throat. —The opening into the tube of a gamosepalous calyx or gamopetalous 
corolla. 

Thyr'sus. —A compact panicle of flowers like the Lilac or Sumac. 

Tis'sue. —An aggregation of cells of similar source, structure and function in 
intimate union. 

To'mentose. —Covered with dense, matted, wooly hairs. 

Tor'tuous.—Bent or twisted irregularly. 

To'rus.—Another name for receptacle. 

Tra'chea. —An elongated cylindrical or prismatic tube found in the fibrovascular 
system and serving for the conduction of crude sap. 

Tra'cheid. —An undeveloped trachea usually with bordered pits. 

Transpira'tion. —The giving off of watery vapor by the plant. 

Tri. —Three. 

TriadePphous. —Having the filaments in 3 sets. 

Trian'drous. —Possessing three stamens. 

Tri'arch. —Applied to a radial fibrovascular bundle having three xylem and three 
phloem arms alternating with one another. 

Tricar'pellary. —Possessing three carpels. 

Trich'oblast. —An internal hair, like those .projecting into the intercellular-air¬ 
spaces of the stems of certain Water Lilies. 

Trich'cgyne. —A slender appendage to the carpogonium. 

Trich'ome.—A plant hair. 

Trichot'omous. —Three-branched or forked. 

Trifo'liate. —Said of a compound leaf having three leaflets. 

Trimor'phous. —Possessing three kinds of hermaphrodite flowers in the same 
species, differing in the relative length of their stamens and carpels. 

Tristichous. —Three ranked. 

Triter'nate. —Applied to a compound leaf whose petiole divides into three second¬ 
ary petioles, each of which again divides into three tertiary petioles, each 
division bearing 3 leaflets. 

Trun'cate. —Ending abruptly as if cut off or flattened at the summit. 

Tu'ber. —A short excessively thickened end of an underground stem. 

Tu'bercle. —A small wart-like outgrowth upon the rootlets, roots or subter¬ 
ranean stems of various plants. 


GLOSSARY 


439 


Tu'berous. —Bearing or resembling tubers. 

Tu'nicated. —Covered with successively overlapping coats as the bulb of an 
Onion. 

Tur'binate.— Top-shaped. 

Turges'cent. —Swelling. 

Tylo'sis. —A protrusion of the wall of a cell through the pit in the wall of an 
adjacent vessel and appearing in the cavity of the latter. 

Type. —An individual possessing the essential characteristics of the group to 
which it belongs. 

Um'bel. —The typical inflorescence of the family Umbelliferae. A more or 
less flat topped indeterminate inflorescence in which the pedicels spread 
like the stays of an umbrella. 

Un'ciform. —Hook-shaped. 

Un'dershrub. —A low shrub-like plant whose base is woody and upper portion 
herbaceous. 

Un'dulate. —Having a wavy margin. 

Uni. —A prefix of Latin origin meaning one. 

Unilateral. —One-sided. 

Uniloc'ular. —One-celled. 

Unise'riate. —Arranged in a single row, as the cells of some plant hairs. 

Ur'ceolate. —Urn-shaped. 

Ure'dospore. —A one-celled spore produced during the life history of a Rust. 

U'tricle. —An akene with a bladdery pericarp as Chenopodium fruit. 

Vacuole. —A cavity within the protoplasm of a cell usually containing cell sap. 

Valv'ate. —Applied to the leaves of a flower in the bud stage when their margins 
meet but do not overlap. 

Valve. —One of the halves of a diatom. One of the parts of a pericarp that 
splits open when ripe. 

Variety. —A sub-species. 

Vas'culum.—A collecting case used by botanists. 

Vegetable.—A plant. 

Vein. —A strand of fibrovascular tissue in a leaf. 

Vala'men. —An absorptive tissue composed of several layers of dead cells 
covering the roots of some tropical epiphytic orchids and aroids. 

Vena'tion.—The arrangement of veins in a leaf. 

Ven'ter. —The enlarged basal portion of an archegonium. 

Ven'tral Canal' Cell. —A cell beneath the entrance of the neck portion of an 
archegonium. 

Vermic'ular.—W orm-shaped. 

Verna'tion. —The manner in which leaves are disposed in the bud. 

Ver'rucose. —Wart-like. 

Verticillas'ter.—A pair of dense cymes in the axils of opposite leaves. 


440 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


V ertic'illate. —Whorled. 

Vessel. —See trachea. 

Villose'. —Covered with soft, thin, rather straight hairs. 

Virides'cent. —Greenish. 

Vis'cid.— Sticky. 

Vitta. —An oil tube in the fruit of an Umbelliferous plant. 

Vol'va. —The swollen base of the stipe in some toadstools. 

Xy'lem. —That portion of a fibrovascular bundle which contains wood cells and 
fibers. 

Zoogloe'a. —A gelatinous mass of bacteria. 

Zo'ospore. —A ciliated spore having the power of movement. 

Zyg'ospore. —A spore resulting from the union of two like gametes. 

Zy'mogen. —A microorganism capable of producing fermentation. 


INDEX 


Abies, 294 
Abies balsamea, 295 
excelsa, 295 
Abrus precatorius, 344 
Absinthium N. F., 406 
Acacia, 91, 341, 342 
Catechu, 344 
Senegal, 91, 166, 342 
Acajou Gum, 356 
Acanthaceae, 393 
Acanthus Family, 393 
Acer, 4, 359 

spicatum, 359 
Aceraceae, 358 
Achillea millefolium, 407 
Aconiti Folia, 327 

Aconitine, micro-chemic test for, 84 
Aconitum, 325 
galea of, 184 

Aconitum Napellus, 325, 327 
Acorus calamus, 300, 409 
Fig. of, 301 
Acrasiales, 3 
Actaea, 325 

Actinomyces Myricarum, 135, 224, 312 
Adhesion, 183 
Adnation, 183 
Adonis N. F., 327 
vernalis, 327 
^Ecidium, 271 
iEcium, 271 
JE gle Marmelos, 351 
Aerogens, 219 
yEthallia, 230 
Agar, 246 
Agaricaceae, 274 
Agaricales, 274 


Agaricus, 274 

campestris, 274, 276 
Fig. of, 275 

Agathis loranthifolia, 295 
Agave, 410 
Agave americana, 75 
Agavose, 75 
Aggregatae, 402 
Aggregation-body, 167 
Agropyron repens, 299 
Ailanthus Family, 351 
Akene, 207 
Albugo, 251 
Albumen, defined, 214 
endospermic, 214 
mode of formation, 214, 215 
perispermic, 214 

perispermic and endospermic, 215 
Albumens, 89 
Alburnum, 152 
Alcannin, 98 
Aldrovanda, 335 
Alectoria, 282 
Aletris farinosa, 303 
Aleurone grains, 90 
Alga-like Fungi, 247 
Algae, 231 

blue green, 227 
brown, 242 
green, 231 
red, 246 
siphon, 241 

Alkaloidal reagents, 83 
Alkaloids, definition of, 83 
examples of, 83, 84 
properties of, 83 
Alkanet, 390 


441 


442 


INDEX 


Allamanda, 384 
Ayium, 303 

sativum, 303 

Allyl-iso-sulphocyanide, 96 
Aloe, 172, 303 
ferox, 303 
Perryi, 303 
vera, 303 

Alpinia officinarum, 304 
Althaea, 91, 365 
Flores, 365 
Folia, 365 
officinalis, 85, 365 
rosea, 365 

Amanita muscaria, 276, 278 
Fig. of, 276 
phalloides, 276, 278 
Fig. of, 277 
Amber, 295 
Ament, 179 
Ammoniacum, 378 
Amygdala, 338 
Am ra, 340 
Dulcis, 338 
Amygdalin, 96 
Amylodextrin, 82 
Amylum, 299 
Anacardiaceae, 356 
Anacardium occidentale, 356 
Anacyclus Pyre thrum, 5, 406 
Anamirta cocculus, 328 
Andreaeales, 286 
Androecium, 188 
Andromeda, 379, 380 
Anemone, 207 
Anemone Ludoviciana, 327 
pratense, 327 
Pulsatilla, 327 
Anemonella, 324 
Anethol, 377 

Angelica Archangelica, 377, 378 
atropurpurea, 378 
Angelicae Fructus N. F., 377 
Radix N. F., 378 


Angiosperm, life history of an, 53, 58 
Angiospermous flower, diagram of 
anatomy of, 56 
Angiosperms, 296 

distinctions from gymnosperms, 
58 , 59 

resemblances between and gymno¬ 
sperms, 58 
Angiospermae, 296 
Aniline sulphate, 98 
Anisum, 377 
Annatto, 368 
Annual ring, 147 

thickening, 146, 147 
Annulus, 275, 287, 290 
Anthemis nobilis, 406 
Anther, 188, 190 
adnate, 193 
attachment of, 193 
dehiscence, 191 
development of, 192 
extrorse, 193 
' Fig. of, 192 

gross structure of, 190 
histology of, 190 
innate, 193 
introrse, 193 
lobes, 190 
syngenesious, 190 
versatile, 193 
Antheridia, 192, 194, 235 
Anthocarp, 202 
Anthoceros, 283 
Anthocerotales, 283 
Anthocyanins, 94 
Anthophore, 183 
Anthostema, 355 
Anthotaxy, 177 
Antigonum leptopus, 321 
Antipodals, 55 
Antirrhinum, 393 
Apetalae, 310 
Apii Fructus, 378 
graveolens, 378 


INDEX 


Apocynaceae, 384 
Apocynum, cannabinum, 386 
latex of, 94 
Apothecia, 256, 281 
Apothecium, 256 
Apple, 210, 338 
Applied Botany, definition, 2 
Apposition, growth by, 97 
Appressorium, 249 
Arabis, 334 
Araceae, 300 
Arales, 300 
Aralia N. F., 376 
hispida, 376 
nudicaulis, 376 
racemosa, 376 
spinosa, 376 
Araliaceae, 376 
Arbutus unedo, 379 
Archegonia, 42 
Archegonium, defined, 282 
Archichlamydeae, 309 
Arctium Lappa, 406 
Arctostaphylos, 380 
Uva Ursi, 379, 380 
Areca catechu, 300 
nut, 300 

Arenga saccharifera, 75 
Aril, 214 
Arillode, 214 
Arisaema triphyllum, 301 
Aristolochia, 320 
reticulata, 321 

Aristolochia, serpentaria, 5, 320 
sipho, 140, 144 
Arnica, 406 

montana, 406 
Artemisia Absinthium, 406 
pauciflora, 406, 407 
Arum Family, .300 
Asafcetida, 377 
Asagraea officinalis, 303 
Asarum N. F., 321 
canadensis, 321 


Asarum, N. F., flower of, 320 
Asci, 251, 257 
Asclepiadaceae, 386 
Asclepias, latex of, 94 
Asclepias N. F., 386 
Asclepias tuberosa, 386 
Ascocarp, 265 
Ascomycetes, 251 
Ascospores, 251 

of claviceps, 265, 266 
Ascus, 251 
Ash, 381 

mountain, 74 
Asparagine, 85 
Asparagus, 85 
Aspergillus, 256 
fumigatus, 262 
glaucus, 260 
herbariorum, 260, 261 
niger, 263, 264 
oryzae, 261, 262 
Aspidium. See Dryopteris. 
Aspidosperma Quebracho-bianco, 
386 

Assimilation, defined, 155 
parenchyma, 101 
Asteraceae, 402 
Astragalus gummifer, 91 
Atriplex, 323 
Atropa, 391 

Atropa Belladonna, 85, 391 
Aurantieae, 349 
Aurantii Dulcis Cortex, 350 
Amari Cortex, 350 
Auriculariales, 271 
Austrian Pine, Fig. of cones, 47 
Autobasidiomycetes, 271 
Auxospore, 239, 240 
Awn, 214 
Azalea, 191, 379 
amena, 379 
apples, 273 
Azolla, 292 


444 


INDEX 


Bacca, 209 
Bacilli, anthrax, 222 

disease producing, 224 
types of, 220 
Bacillus, 221 
Bacteria, 219 

chemical composition of, 223 
classification according to form, 
220, 222 

disease producing, 224 
forms of cell groups after cleavage, 
223 

morphology due to cleavage, 222. 
mounting and staining of, 224, 227 
physical appearance of, 219, 222 
rapidity of multiplication, 223 
reproduction of, 222 
sporulation, 222 
Bacteriaceae, 220 
Bacterioids, 133 
Bacterium, 220 
Balansia claviceps, 266 
Balsam Apple, 401 
Balsamum Peruvianum, 343 
Tolutanum, 343 
Balsams, 92, 93 
Banana, 209 
Baneberry, 325 
Baptisia tinctoria, 344 
Barberry Family, 327 
Bark, 147 

cross-section of stem-bark of 
Cascara Sagrada, 150 
cross-section through root-bark of 
Euonymus atropurpureus, 
358 

Barosma, 5, 349 
betulina, 350 
serratifolia, 351 
Basidiomycetes, 267 
Basidiospore, 267 
Basidium, 267 
Bast, fibers, 105 
hard, 144 


Bast, soft, 144 
Bayberry Family, 312 
Beech, 316 
Beech Family, 316 
Beets, 323 

Begonia, leaf stalk of, 102 
roots of, 123 
Beggiatoa, 222 
Beggiatoaceae, 222 
Belae Fructus, 351 
Belladonna, fruit of, 209 
Belladonnae Folia, 391 
Radix, 391 
Benzoin Family, 381 
Benzoinum, 381 
Berberidaceae, 327 
Berberis N. F., 327 
Berry, 208 
Beta, 323 

vulgaris, 324 
var. Rapa, 299 
Betula lenta, 316 
Betulaceae, 316 
Bicuculla canadensis, 334 
Bifacial leaf blade, 172 
Binomial plan of nomenclature, 4 
Birch Family, 316 
Birth wort Family, 320 
Bistorta, 322 
Bittersweet, 392 
Bixa Orellana, 368 
Bixaceae, 368 
Blackberry, 210, 338 
Black Mold, 248, 249, 250 
Bloodroot, 332, 

Blue Flag, 409 
Blue Green Algae, 227 
Bluebell Family, 401 
Bog Mosses, 286 
Boletus, 274 
edulis, 75 

felleus, Fig. of, 273 
Borage Family, 388 
Borraginaceae, 388 


INDEX 


445 


Borragineae, 388, 390 
Boswellia carterii, 352 
Botanical nomenclature, 4, 7 
Botany, defined, 1 

departments of inquiry, 1, 2 
Bract, 178 
Bracteolar leaf, 178 
Branching, deliquescent, 139 
excurrent, 139 
Brassica napus 335 
nigra, 96, 335 
Brauneria pallida, 406 
Brayera, 338 

Bread mold, 248, 249, 250 
Brewer’s yeast, 254 
Bridal wreath, 338 
Bromelin, 96 
Brooksilk, 236 
Brown Algae, 242 
Brunfelsia Hopeana, 391 
Brunnichia, 321 
Bryales, 286 
Bryonia N. F., 401 
Bryonia alba, 401 
dioica, 401 
Bryony, 400 

Bryophyllum, roots of, 123 
Bryophyta, 282 
outline of, 3 
Buchnera, 392 
Buchu, 350 

Buckthorn Family, 359 
Budding, 70 
Bud, defined, 135 
Buds, 135 

accessory, 136 
adventitious, 136 
alternate, 136 
axillary, 136 

classifications of, 135, 136 

flower, 135 

leaf, 135 

mixed, 136 

naked, 135 


Buds, scaly, 135 
whorled, 136 
Bulb, defined, 139 
tunicated, 139 
scaly, 139 
Bur-reed, 409 
Burseraceae, 351 
Butomus, anthers of, 190 
Buttercup Family, 324 

Caesalpineae, 341 
Cacao Praeparatum N. F., 362 
Cactaceae, 370 
Cactus Family, 370 
grandiflorus, 371 
Caffeina, 366 
Caffeine, 84 

micro-chemic test for, 84 
Calamus, 301 
Calamus Draco, 300 
Calceolaria, 189, 393 
Calcium oxalate, types of crystals, 86 

87 

how formed, 85 
tests for, 85 
Calcium pectate, 61 
Calendula officinalis, 406 
California Poppy, 332 
Callicarpa, 395 
Callistemnon, 172 
Callitris quadrivalvis, 295 
Callus, 98 

Caltrop Family, 348 
Calumba, 328 
Calyptra, of moss, 287 
Calyptrogen, 99, 122 
Calyx, bilabiate, 184 
caducous, 184 
campanulate, 184 
chorisepalous, 183 
deciduous, 184 
defined, 183 
epigynous, 184 
gamosepalous, 183, 184 


INDEX 


446 

Calyx, half-superior, 184 
hypocrateriform, 184 
hypogynous, 184 
inferior, 184 
irregular, 184 
petaloid, 183 
perigynous, 184 
persistent, 184 
regular, 184 
rotate, 184 
superior, 184 
Cambogia, 366 
Cammeliaceae, 366 
Campanulaceae, 401 
placentation in, 197 
Campanulales, 400 
Camphora, 332 
Candytuft, 334 
Cane sugar, micro-chemic test for, 
74 

Canella N. F., 368 
Winterana, 368 
Canellaceae, 368 
Canna, starch of, 81 
style of, 198 
Cannabis, 319 

sativa, 88, 319 
var. indica, 319 
Capitulum, 179 
Caprifoliaceae, 399 
Capsicum, 208 
annuum, 391 
frutescens, 391 
Capsule, 206 

histology of a, 211 
Careya, 374 
Carcerulus, 206 
Cardamomii Semen, 304 
Carica Papaya, 369 
Caricaceae, 369 
Carina, 186 
Carnauba wax, 300 
Carnoy fluid, 24 
Carotin, 93 


Carpel, defined, 195 
Carpophore, 183, 206 
Carragheen, 246 
Carrion fungi, 279 
Carthamus tinctorius ; 407 
Carum, 377 
Carvi, 377 
Caruncle, 214 
Carya, 316 
Caryophyllus, 375 
Caryopsis, 208 
Cascara Sagrada, 359 
Cascarilla, 355 
Cassia acutifolia, 343 
angustifolia, 343 
Fistula, 343 
Cassia buds, 332 
Castanea, 88, 316, 319 
dentata, 319 
Castilloa, 94 
Cat-tails, 409 
Cataria N. F., 397 
Catechu, 344 

Cathartocarpus fistula, 6, 207, 343 
Catkin, 179 
Cattleya, 307 
Caulicle, 121 
Caulophyllum, 327 
thalictroides, 327 
Caustics, 63 
Cedrella, 353 
Celandine, latex of, 94 
Celastraceae, 356, 357 
Celastrus, 356 
Cell, typical plant, 60, 61 

as a fundamental unit, 60 
membranes, 61 

Cell formation and reproduction, 70 
resting stage of, 71, 72 
sap, 61 
Cell walls, 96 

behavior of, to micro-chemic re 
agents, 98 

growth in area and thickness, 97 



INDEX 


447 


Cell walls, various kinds of and be¬ 
havior of each to micro-chemic 
reagents, 98 
Celloidin sections, 29 
Cells, epidermal-daughter, 175 
neighboring, 174 

of epidermis of onion-bulb scale, 
61 

subsidiary, 174 
stoma-mother, 175 
Cellulose, 96, 98 
ferment, 95 
fungous, 252 

mucilaginous modification of, 98 
reserve, 98 
Celsia, 189 
Centaurium, 384 
Centrospermae, 322 
Cephaelis acuminata, 398 
Ipecacuanha, 398 
Cephalanthus, 398 
Cereus, 370 

giganteus, 370 
grandiflorus, 371 

Cerevisiae Fermentum Compressum, 
255 

Cetraria islandica, 281, 282 
Fig. of, 281 
Chalaza, 197 

Chamaelirium luteum, 303 
Chara, 241, 242 
Characeae, 241 
Charales, 241 
Chaulmoogra oil, 368 
Chelidonium, 206, 332 
majus, 333 
Chemotropism, 63 
Chenopodiaceae, 322 
Chenopodiales, 322 
Chenopodium, 324 

anthelminticum, 324 
Fig. of fruit, 208 
Cherry, 209, 338 
Cherry gum, 91 


Cherry laurel, emulsion in leaves of, 
96 

Chestnut, 316 
Chicory, 404, 4°S 
Chimaphila, 379 
umbellata, 380 
Chinese Galls, 356 
Chionanthus, 381 
virginiana, 381 
Chionanthus N. F., 381 
Chirata, 384 

Chlamydobacteriaceae, 221 
Chlamydomonas, 232 
Chlamydospores, 267 
Chlorenchyma, 101 
Chlorophyceae, 231 
Chlorophyll, 93 
Chlorophyllin, 93 
Chloroplastids, 70 
Chlor-zinc-iodine, 98 
Choke cherry, 6, 96 
Chondodendron tomentosum, 328 
Chondrus crispus, 246 
Choripetalae, 310 
Chromatin, 71 
Chromatophores, 69 
Chrome-acetic fluids, 24 
Chromic acid, 23 
Chromophyll, 93 

parenchyma, 101 
Chromoplastids, 70 
Chromogens, 219 
Chromosomes, 73 
Chrysanthemum, corolla of, 187 
Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium, 406 
Marschalii, 406 
roseum, 406 
Chrysarobinum, 344 
Chytridiales, 251 
Cichorium, 407 
Intybus, 407 
Cimicifuga, 325 
racemosa, 325 
Fig. of, 326 


INDEX 


448 

Cinchona, 5, 398 
Calisaya, 398 
Ledgeriana, 398 
Rubra, 398 
succirubra, 398 
Cinnamomum Burmanii, 332 
Camphora, 332 
Cassia, 332 
Loureirii, 332 
Saigonicum, 332 
Zeylanicum, 332 
Cinquefoil, 338 
Cistaceae, 369 
Citrullus colocynthis, 401 
vulgaris, 401 
Citrus, 349 

Aurantium, 350 
amara, 350 
Bergamia, 351 
sinensis, 350 
medica Limomum, 350 
acida, 351 
Cladonia, 281 
Clarodendron, 395 
Class, 2 

Classification, principles of, 2, 3 
Clavaria flava, Fig. of, 272 
Clavariales, 273 
Claviceps purpurea, life history of, 
265, 266, 267 
Clematis, 207, 324 
Clitandra, 94 

Close fertilization, prevention of, 199 

Clove, 575 

Clove Bark, 332 

Club Mosses, 288 

Coalescence, 183 

Coca, 348 

leaf epidermis, 174, 175 
Coca Family, 347 
Cocaine, 84, 348 
Coccaceae, 220 
Coccoloba platyclada, 321 
uvifera, 321 


Cocculus, 328 
Cocillana, 354 
Cocoanut oil, 300 
fruit, 210 

Cocos nucifera, 75, 300 
Coenocyte, 241 
Coflea arabica, 398 
libercia, 398 
Coffea Tosta N. F., 398 
Coffee, 398 
Cohesion, 183 
Cola Family, 361 
Cola acuminata, 362 
Colchici Cormus, 303 
Semen, 303 
Colchicum, 302 
Colchicum autumnale, 84, 303 
Colchicine, micro-chemic test for, 84 
Colocynth, 400 
Colocynthis, 401 
Collenchyma, 102, 103 
Collinsonia, 5, 397 
Columbine, 325 
Columella, 249 
Columnar crystals, 86 
Coma, 214 
Comatricha, 230 
Combretaceae, 375 
Combretum, 376 
Combretum sundaicum, 376 
Comfrey, 390 
Commiphora, 352 

Commiphora myrrha, branch of, 353 
Companion cells, 112, 113 
Compositae, 402 
inulin in, 82 
Compressed yeast, 255 
Comptonia, 314 

Comptonia asplenifolia, epidermis of 
leaf, 106 

photomicrograph of long-section 
through staminate catkin of, 
178 

Conceptacles of Fucus, 244, 245 


INDEX 


449 


# 


Conducting parenchyma, ioi 
C onducting tissues, 120 
Condurango, 386 
Cone, defined, 211 
figs, of, 47, 49 
Confervales, 234 
Conidia, 259 
Conidiospores, 259 
Coniferae, 294 

Coniferin, micro-chemic test for, 83 
Coniferales, 294 
Conifer, 293 
Conium N. F., 377 
Conium maculatum, 377 
Conjugates, 236 
Conjugation, 71, 237 
Connation, 183 
Connective, 188 
Contortae, 381 
Convallaria m^ajalis, 303 
Convallariae Radix, 303 
Flores, 303 
Convolvulaceae, 386 
Convolvulus Scammonia, 387, 388 
Copaiba, 344 
Copernicia cerifera, 300 
Copper acetate test for tannins, 88 
test for resins, 93 
Coptis, N. F., 327 
trifoliata, 327 
Coral fungi, 273 
Corallin-soda solution, 98 
Coriandrum, 377 
Cork, defined, no 

microchemic tests for, no 
Cork cambium, origin in roots, 126 
origin in stems, 143 
Cork formation in roots, 126 
in stems, 143 
Corm, 139 

Corn, inflorescence of, 298 
smut, 267, 268, 269 
starch, 79 

stem, figs, of sections of, 152, 153 
29 


Cornaceae, 378 
Cornus N. F., 378 
Cornus canadensis, 378 
florida, 378 
sanguinea, 378 
Corolla, defined, 185 
apopetalous, 185 
bilabiate, 186 
campanulate, 187, 188 
carophyllaceous, 188 
choripetalous, 185 
crateriform, 186 
cruciform, 186, 187 
forms of, 187 

Corolla, gamopetalous, 186 
hypocrateriform, 186 
labiate, 186, 187 
ligulate, 186, 187 
infundibuliform, 187, 188 
papilionaceous, 186, 187 
persoate, 186 
polypetalous, 186 
ringent, 186, 187 
rotate, 186, 187 
urceolate, 187, 188 
Correa grandiflora, 350 
Corrosive sublimate, 24 
Corydalis, 334 
Corymb, 179 
Corynebacterium, 221 
Coto, 332 

Cotyledons, 121, 156 
Cremocarp, 206, 207 
Crenothrix, 222 
Cribiform tissue, 112 
Crocus sativus, 304 
Croton Eluteria, 355 
tiglium, 355 
Cruciferae, 334 
Crude sap, 39 
Crystal fibers, 86, 87 
Crystal sand, 86, 87 
Cubeba, 311 
Cucumber, 400, 401 


450 


INDEX 


Cucurbita Pepo, 401 
Cucurbitaceae, 400 
Cudbear, 282 
Culm, 138 
Cuoxam, 98 
Cup Fungi, 256 
Cuphea, 371, 372 
Cupules, 283 
Cupuliferae, 316 
Curcuma N. F., 304 
Curcuma longa, 304 
Zedoaria, 304 
Currant, 208, 209 
Cutin, 97 

Cyanophyceae, 227 
Cycas revoluta, 293 
Cydonia vulgaris, 341 
Cydonium, 341 
Cyme, 179 

Scorpioid, 180 
Cynoglossum officinale, 390 
Cypress, 410 
Cypripediae, 307 
Cypripedium N. F., 308 
hirsutum, 308 
parviflorum, 308 
Cystolith, 87 
hair, 88 
Cytase, 95 

Cytisus scoparius, 344 
Cytology, 1, 60 
Cytoplasm, 60, 68 
Cytoplasmic caps, 73 

d-mannose, 74 

Dacromyces deliquescens, 272 
Dacromycetales, 272 
Dahlia, 85, 404 
Daisy, 404 
Daisy Family, 402 
Damiana, 369 
Dammar, 295 
Dandelion, 404, 406 


Daphne Gnidium, 371 
Laureola, 371 
Mezereum, 371 
fig. of, 370 
Date Palm, 299 
Datura Stramonium, 391 
Tatula, 391 
Decadon, 371 
Dehiscence, apical porous, 
in anthers, 191 

diagrams of valvular in fruits, 
203 

in fruits, 202, 204 
longitudinal anther, 191 
transverse anther, 192 ^ 

valvular, 191 

Delafield’s haematoxylin, 29 
Delphinium, 325 
Ajacis, 327 
consolida, 327 
spur of, 184 
Staphisagria, 325 
Delphinium N. F., 325 
Dermatogen, 100, 122 
Desilicification of woody sections, 30 
Desmidaceae, 236 
Determinate inflorescences, 179 
solitary, 179 

Deutzia, trichomes on leaves of, 107, 
109 

Dextrin, 81, 82 
white, 81 
yellow, 81 
Dextrose, 74 
Dianthera, 395 
Diastase, 95 
Diatoma vulgare, 238 
Diatomaceae, 238 
Diatomaceous Earth, 239 
Diatomales, 238 
Diatoms, 91, 238, 239, 240, 241 
Dicentra canadensis, 334 
cucullaria, 334 

Dicotyl Plant, morphology of type, 309 


INDEX 


451 


Dicotyl Seed, gross structure of, 217 
stems, 140, 147 

Dicotyledoneae, characteristics of, 308, 
309 

Dictyophora duplicata, 279 
Dicypellium carophyllatum, 332 
Diervilla, 400 

Differences between Gymnosperms 
and Angiosperms, 58, 59 
roots and stems, 123 
histological, between leaves of 
Dicotyls and Monocotyls, 
176 

Digitalis, 392 

purpurea, 393 
trichomes of, 107 
var. gloxinaeflora, 394 
Digitoxin, micro-chemic test for, 83 
Dionaea muscipula, 65, 67, 335 
Dioscorea, 5, 303 
villosa, 303 
Dioscoreaceae, 303 
Diosma, 349, 350 
Dittany, 350 
Division, 2 
Dodder, 124, 137 
Dog Bane Family, 384 
Dogwood Family, 378 
Dog’s Tooth Violet, life history of, 53, 
58 

Dorema Ammoniacum, 378 
Dorsoventral leaf blades, 169 
Dracena Draco, 301 
Dragon’s Blood, 300 
Drimys Winteri, 324 
Drosera, 335 

effect of mechanical stimulus in, 
67 

longifolia, 336 
intermedia, 336 
rotundifolia, 336 
Droseraceae, 335 
Drupe, 209 

fig. of, 210 


Dryopteris Filix-mas, alternation of 
generations in, 44 
comparative physiology of root, 
stem and leaf, 39, 40 
fig. of, 34 

gross structure of stem, 33 
sori and sporangia, 40 
growth of seedling into mature 
sporophyte, 44 
histology of growing apex, 36 
lamina, 38 
mature root, 36 
stem, 33 
root apex, 37 
sori and sporangia, 40 
stipe, 37 

history of gametophyte genera¬ 
tion, 41, 45 

sporophyte generation, 33, 4 1 
Dryopteris Filix-mas, origin of new 
sporophyte or diploid plant 
from fertilized egg, 44 
vascular bundles of, 35, 292 
Dryopteris marginalis ( frontispiece ), 
292 

Duboisia myoporoides, 391 
Dulcamara, 391 
Duramen, 152 

Ear fungi, 271 

Earth Stars, 279 

Earth Tongues, 265 

Ebenales, 380 

Ecballium Elaterium, 401 

Echinacea, 406 

Echinocactus, 370 

Echinocereus, 371 

Echium, 389 

Ecology, 1, 408 

Economic Botany, 2 

Ectocarpus siliculosus, 242, 243 

Ectoplasm, 39 

Egg Plant, 391 


452 


INDEX 


Ehrlich’s Anilin Water Gentian Vio¬ 
let, 226 

Elaeis guineensis, 300 
Elastica, 355 
Elaterinum, 401 
Elettaria Cardamomum, 304 
Elm Family, 319 
Embryo, 121 
Embryo-sac, 49, 55, 197 
maturation of,. 55 
Emulsin, 96 
Endocarp, 202 
Endodermis, 109, no 
Endospores, 220, 221 
Endosporium, 41 
Endothecium, 191 
Entada scandens, 207 
Enzyme, 94 
Enzymes, 94, 95 

classification of, 95, 96 
Epicalyx, 185 
Epicarp, 202 

Epidermal, outgrowths, 108-109 
papillae, 108 
scales, 109 
Epidermis, 106 
Epiphegus, 5 
Epithelium, 120 
Equatorial plate, 73 
Equisetineae, 289 
Equisetum, 290 
arvense, 291 
Ergot fungus, 265 
Erica, 379 
Ericaceae, 379 
Ericales, 379 
Erigeron canadensis, 407 
Eriodictyon, 5 

Eriodictyon californicum, 388 
trichomes of, 107 
Eriogonum, 321 
Erythraea Centaurium, 384 
Erythronium Americanum, life history 

of, 53-58 


Erythroxylaceae, 347 
Erythroxylon Coca, 348 
Eschscholtzia, 332 
Etaerio, 210 
Etiolin, 93 
Etiology, 2 
Eucalyptol, 375 
Eucalyptus, 374, 375 
globulus, 373, 375 
lamina, 172 

photomicrograph of trans. sect. 

leaf-blade, 173 
Kino, 375 
rostrata, 375 
Endorina, 232 

Eugenia aromatica, 374, 375 
Eugenol, 375 
Euonymus, 356 

Americanus, 356 
atropurpureus, 357 
Europaeus, 356 
Euonymus N. F., 357 

Fig. of flowering and fruiting 
branch, 357 

Fig. of bark in cross-section, 358 
Eupatorium, 406 

perfoliatum, 406 
Euphorbia, 355 
Pilulifera, 355 
Euphorbiaceae, 355 
Euphrasia, 392 
Eurotium, 260 
Exoascus, 251 
Exobasidiales, 273 
Exogonium Purga, 388 
Exosporium, 41 
Exothecium, 191 

Fabaceae, 341 
Fagaceae, 316 
Fagales, 316 
Fagot Cassia, 332 
Fagus grandifolia, 316 
Families, naming of, 7 


INDEX 


453 


Family, 2 

Farfara, N. F., 406 
Fats, 91 

Fatsia horrida, 376 
Ferment, 94 
Ferments, 95 

carbohydrate, 95 
fat and oil, 96 
glucoside, 96 
proteinaceous, 96 
Fern, antheridium, 43 
apical cell, 36, 37 
archegonium, 42, 43 
foot of, 44 
prothallium, 42 
sperms of, 43 
Ferns, 290 
true, 292 
water, 292, 409 
Fern Palms, 293 
Fertilization, defined, 71 

in angiosperms, 200, 201 
cross, 199 
self, 199 

Ferula, Asafoetida, 377 
foetida, 377 
galbaniflua, 378 
Sumbul, 377 

Fibro-vascular bundles, definition, 117 
bicollateral, 117, 118 
closed collateral, 117 
concentric, 118 
diagrams of, 117 
open, 117 
radial, 118 
Ficus N. F., 319 
Carica, 319 
elastica, 94, 171 
Fig wort Family, 392 
Filament, 188 

gross structure of, 190 
histology of, 190 
Filicales, 292 
Filicineae, 290 


Fission, 70 
Fistulina, 274 
Fixation, 23 
Fixing agents, 23-25 
Fixed oils, 91 
tests for, 91 
Flax, 347 

bast fibers of, 105 
Flax Family, 346 
Flemming fluids, 24, 25 
Floral diagrams, 251 
Flower, complete, 181 
diandrous, 188 
dichlamydeous, 183 
double, 182 

essential organs of, 181 
hermaphrodite, 181 
hexandrous, 188 
imperfect, 182 
liliaceous, 186 
monochlamydeous, 183 
neutral, 182 
orchidaceous, 186 
perfect, 181 
pentandrous, 188 
pistillate, 182 
polyandrous, 188 
regular, 182 
stalk, 178 
staminate, 182 
symmetrical, 182 

Foeniculum, histology of mericarp, 212 
vulgare, 377 
Foenum graecum, 344 
Foliage leaves, 156 
Follicle, 206. (See pod.) 

Foot, 291 
Fomes, 274 
Forestry, 2 
Forsythia, 381 
Fothergilla, 337 
Fovilla, 55 
Foxglove, 392 
Fragaria, 185 


454 


INDEX 


Frangula, 359 
Fraxinus, 381 

Americana, 381 
Ornus, 74, 381 
Free cell formation, 71 
Frond, 33, 290 
Fructose, 74 

Fruit, classification of, 204 
Fruit, definition, 202 
structure, 202-213 
Fruits, achenial, 204, 207, 208 
aggregate, 204, 210 
baccate, 204, 208, 209 
capsular, 204, 205 
drupaceous, 204, 205 
multiple, 204, 210 
schizocarpic, 204, 206, 207 
simple, 204 

Fucus vesiculosus, description 
of, 244, 246 

Figs, of, 243, 244, 245 
Fumariaceae, 334 
Fumitory Family, 334 
Fundamental considerations, 1—32 
tissue, 101 
Fungi, 247 

Fungi Imperfecti, 280 
Funiculus, 196, 214 
Funtumia africana, 94 
elastica, 94 

Galanga, 304 
Galbalus, defined, 211 
fig. of, 210 
Galbanum, 378 
Galea, 184 
Galega N. F., 344 
officinalis, 344 
Galium, 398 
Galla, 319 
Galls, Chinese, 356 
Japanese, 356 
Galvanotropism, 66 
Gambir, 398 


Gamboge family, 366 
Gamete, 71, 237 

Gametophyte, generation of Male 
Fern, 44 
Gamopetalae, 378 
Garcinia Hanburyi, 366, 367 
Gasteromycetes, 278 
Gaultherase, 96 
Gaultheria, 380 

procumbens, 96, 380 
Gaultherin, 96 
Gaylussacia, 379 
Geaster, 278 
Gelidium, 246 
Gelsemium, 382, 384 
sempervirens, 384 
stem, 145 
Gemmae, 283 
Gemmation, 70 
Genetics, defined, 1 
Gentiana, 384 
acaulis, 384 
lutea, 383, 384 
verna, 384 
Gentianaceae, 384 
Gentianales, 381 
Genus, 2 

Geological Botany, defined, 2 
Geotropism, 65 
lateral, 66 
Geraniales, 344 
Geranium, 344 

maculatum, 346 
Geranium Family, 344 
Gerardia, 124, 392 
Germination, 216 
Gesneria, placentation in, 197 
Geum, 183, 185 
Gigartina mamillosa, 246 
Gills of mushrooms, 274, 275 
Ginger, absence of lignin in scleren- 
chyme fibers of, 103 
Family, 304 
Fig. of plant, 306 


INDEX 


455 


Ginkgoales, 4 
Ginseng, 376 
Ginseng Family, 376 
Glands, internal, 119 
Gians, 208 
Gleba, 278 
Gloeocapsa, 227, 228 
Gliadins, 89 
Globoid, 90 
Globulins, 89 
Gloiopeltis, 246 
Glomerule, 180 
Gloxinia, 197 
Gluco-alkaloids, 85 
Glucosides, characteristics of, 83 
Glutelins, 89 
Glycerin-Gelatin, 22 
Glycine hispida, 344 
Glycyrrhiza, 343 
glabra, 343 
glandulifera, 343 
Gnaphalium polycephalum, 407 
Gnetales, 4 
Gnetums, 293 
Gonophore, 183 
Gooseberry, 209 
Goosefoot Family, 322 
Goosypii Cortex N. F., 365 
Gossypium, 363 
arboreum, 365 
Barbadense, 365 
herbaceum, 364, 365 
hirsutum, 365 

Gossypium Purificatum, 365 
Gourd, 209 
Gourd Family, 400 
Gracilaria lichenoides, 246 
Grain, 208 
Graminales, 298 
Gramineae, 298 
silica in, 88 
Gram’s method, 225 
Granati Fructus Cortex, 372 
Granatum, 372 


Grape, 208 
Grape Family, 359 
Grape Fruit, 209 
Grass Family, 247 

Greenbrier, histology of stem, 153, 
154 

Green felt, 91, 241 
Grindelia camporum, 406 
cuneifolia, 406 
squarrosa, 406 
Gross anatomy, defined, 1 
Ground Ivy, 395 
Gruinales, 344 
Guaiaci Lignum, 349 
Guaiacum, 348 
Guaiacum officinale, 349 
sanctum, 349 
Guarana, 358 
Guard cells, 173 
Guarea Rusbyi, 354 
Gum resins, 92 
Gums, 90, 91 
Gutta Percha, 380 
Guttiferae, 366 
Gyncecium, 195 

apocarpous, 196 
syncarpous, 196 
Gynophore, 183 

Gymnosperm, life history of a, 45-52 
Gymnospermae, 292 
Gymnosperms, 292 

differences from angiosperms, 58 

Haas and Hill, 95 
Habitat, defined, 1 
Haematoxylon, 343 

campechianum, 343 
Hagenia abyssinica, 338 
Hairs, aggregate, 107 
barbed, 108, 109 
branched, 107 
candelabra shaped, 109 
clavate, 107, 109 
climbing, 108 


INDEX 


456 

Hairs, glandular, 107 
hooked, 108, 109 
multicellular, 109 
non-glandular, 109 
root, 121, 122 
stellate, 107, 109 
stinging, 108 
tufted, 109 t 
unicellular, 107 
uniseriate, 109 
Halophytes, 410 
Haloxylon, 323 
Hamamelidaceae, 337 
Hamamelidis Folia, 338 
Hamamelis virginiana, 338 
Hancornia, 94 
Hanstein, 99 
Harebell, corolla of, 187 
Hard Bast, 144 
Harshberger, 264 
Haustoria, 123, 247 
Hawthorn, 338 
Head, defined, 179 
Heath Family, 379 
Hedeoma, 397 
Hedeoma pulegioides, 397 
Hedera Helix, 376 
Helianthemum, 369, 370 
canadense, 370 
Helianthus tuberosus, 404 
Heliotropeae, 388, 390 
Heliotropism, 64 
Helleborus niger, 327 
Helonias, 303 
Helophytes,409 
Helvellales, 264 
Henbane, 391 
Henna, 372 
Hepaticje, 283 
Hepburn, 94 
Herb, defined, 139 
Herba Majoranae, 397 
Hertwig, 64 
Hesperidin, micro-chemic test for, 82 


Hesperidium, 209 
• Heterocysts, 229 
Hevea, 94 

Hevea braziliensis, 355 
Hibiscus Syriacus, 363 
Hilum, 

of ovule, 19 
of seed, 214 
of starch grain, 76 
Hip, 207 

Histology, defined, 1 
of Aconitum, 132 
of a dicotyl root, 127, 131 
of annual dicotyl stem, 140 
of anther, 190 

of Aristolochia Sipho stem, 140, 
144 

of bark, 149 

of California Privet root, 127, 

131 

of Cascara Sagrada, 149 
Histology of dicotyl tuberous root, 132 
of dicotyl roots, of primary 
growth, 125, 126 
of secondary growth, 126, 127 
of dicotyl stems, 140, 146 
of fern lamina, 38, 39 
root, 36, 37 

sori and sporangia, 40, 41 
stem, 33, 36 
stipe, 37 
of filament, 190 
of fruits, 211, 213 
of Greenbrier stem, 153, 154 
of herbaceous monocotyl stem, 152 
of leaves, 167, 176 
of mericarp, 212 

of monocotyl stems, herbaceous, 
152 

woody, 153, 154 

of perennial dicotyl stem, 143, 144 
of seeds, 215, 218 
of Vanilla capsule, 211 
Holdfast, 244 


INDEX 


457 


Honduras Sarsaparilla, histology of 
root, 124 
Honey dew, 265 
Honeysuckle Family, 399 
fruit, 209 

Hordeum sativum, 299 
Horsetails, 289 
Host, 247 

Hounds’ tongue, 390 
Humulus, 319 

glandular trichomes of, 107, 109 
Humulus lupulus, 109, 319 
Hura crepitans, 206 
Huxley, 62 
Hyacinth, 302 
Hybrid, 2 
Hydnaceae, 274 
Hydnum, 274 
Hydrangea, 336, 337 
arborescens, 337 
Hydrastis canadensis, 325 
Hydrophytes, 408 
Hydrophyllaceae, 388 
Hydropterales, 292 
Hydrotropism, 64 
Hymenium, 272, 275 
Hymenomycetes, 272 
Hyoscyamus, 391 

muticus trichome, 107 
niger, 391 
Hypericaceae, 367 
Hypericum, 367, 368 
perforatum, 368 
Hypha, 247 
Hyphae, aerial, 248 
stoloniferous, 248 
submerged, 248 
Hyssopus officinalis, 397 

Ignatia, 384 
Illicium verum, 324 
Imbedding, celloidin, 28, 29 
paraffine, 23, 26 
Impatiens, 5 


Indigenous, defined, 1 
Indigo, 344 

Indigofera tinctoria, 344 
Indirect nuclear division, 71, 74 
Indusium, 290 
Inflorescence, defined, 177 
ascending, 177 
centrifugal, 177 
centripetal, 177 
cymose, 177 
determinate, 177 
descending, 177 
indeterminate, 177 
mixed, 177 

Inflorescences, of Pine, 294 
of Zea Mays, 298 
Imperatoria Ostruthium, 378 
Indehiscent fruit, 203 
Indeterminate inflorescence, solitary. 
178 

Indian Corn, histology of seed, 215 
Indian Turnip, 301 
Indirect nuclear division, 71 
Integuments of angiospermous ovule, 
196 

Intercellular-air-spaces, lysigenous. 119 
schizogenous, 119 
Internal glands, 119 
phloem, 146 
Internode, defined, 137 
Intussusception, 62 
Inula N. F., 406 
Inula Helenium, 406 
Inulase, 95 
Inulin, 82 
Invertase, 75, 95 
Involucre, 178 
Ipecacuanha, 398 
Ipomcea, 388 

orizabensis, 388 
pandurata, 388 
simulans, 388 
Iridaceae, 304 
Iris, 304, 309 


458 INDEX 


Iris, concentric bundle from rhizome 
of, 116 

florentina, 304 
germanica, 304 
pallida, 304 
versicolor, 304 
Irish Broom, corolla of, 187 
Dulse, 247 
Moss, 246 
Irritability, 62 
Irritable reactions, 62, 68 
Iscetaceae, 288 
Isoetes, 288 

Jalapa, 388 
Male, 388 
Tampico, 388 
Wild, 388 
Janczewski, 99 
Japanese Galls, 356 
Jateorhiza palmata, 328 
Jeffersonia, 5 
Jerusalem Artichoke, 351 
Jungermanniales, 283 
Juglandaceae, 315 
Juglandales, 315 
Juglans N. F., 316 
cinerea, 316 
Juniperus, 294 

communis, 295 
Oxycedrus, 295 
Sabina, 295 
Virginiana, 295 
Juniperus N. F., 295 
Jute, bast fiber of, 105 

Kalmia, 380 
Kamala, 107, 355 
Karyokinesis, 71, 74 
Kava, 311 
Kieselguhr, 239 
Kino, 344 
Kochia, 323 
Koenigia, 321 


Kola, 362 

Krameria argentea, 344 
Ixina, 344 
triandra, 344 
Ktihne, 66 

Labellum, 186 
Labiatae, 395 
Labrador tea, 410 
Lachnea, 256 
Fig. of, 257 
Lactase, 95 
Lactuca, 94 

virosa, 94, 406 
Lactucarium, 406 
Lamellae, of starch grain, 76 
Lamiaceae, 395 
Lamina, defined, 169 
Lamina, mode of development of, 169 
Landolphia, 94 
Lappa, 406 
Larix Europaea, 295 
Larkspur, 324 

corolla of, 187 
Lateral rootlets, 123, 128 
Latex, 94, 112 
cells, no 

micro-chemic test for, 94 
Laticiferous tissue, no 
vessels, in 
Lauraceae, 330 
Laurus, 332 
Lavendula vera, 397 
spica, 397 

Lawsonia inermis, 372 
Leaf, color, 166 
complete, 158 
definition of, 155 
exstipulate, 159 
functions, 155 
petaloid, 166 
petiolate, 159 
sessile, 159 
stipulate, 159 


INDEX 


459 


Leaf apex, 163 

acuminate, 163 
acute, 163 
aristate, 163 
cuspidate, 163 
emarginate, 163 
mucronate, 163 
obcordate, 163 
obtuse, 163 
retuse, 163 
truncate, 163 
arrangement, 156 
' alternate, 157 
decussate, 157 
fascicled, 157 
opposite, 157 
verticillate, 157 
base, 163 

auriculate, 163 
cordate, .163 
cuneate, 163 
Leaf base, hastate, 163 
reniform, 163 
sagittate, 163 
duration, 167 
caducous, 167 
deciduous, 167 
evergreen, 167 
persistent, 167 
insertion, 159, 161 
amplexicaul, 161 
cauline, 159 
clasping, 161 
connate-perfoliate, 161 
equitant, 161 
perfoliate, 159 
radical, 159 
ramal, 159 
rank, 157 
margin, 163, 165 
crenate, 163 
cleft, 165 
dentate, 163 
divided, 165 


Leaf base, margin, entire, 163 
incised, 165 
lobed, 165 
parted, 165 
repand, 165 
runcinate, 165 
serrate, 163 
sinuate, 165 
outline, 161 
acerose, 163 
acicular, 163 
cuneate, 161 
deltoid, 163 
elliptical, 161 
ensiform, 163 
falcate, 163 
filiform, 161 
inequilateral, 161 
linear, l6i 
lanceolate, 161 
oblong, 161 
oblanceolate, 161 
orbicular, 161 
ovate, 161 
peltate, 161 
spatulate, 163 
surface, 166 
glabrous, 166 
glaucous,166 
hispid, 166 
pubescent, 166 
pellucid-punctate, 166 
rugose, 166 
scabrous, 166 
sericious, 166 
spinose, 166 
tomentose, 166 
villose, 166 
verrucose, 166 
texture, 166 
coriaceous, 166 
membranous, 166 
succulent, 166 
venation, 159 



460 


INDEX 


Leaf venation, anastomosing, 159 
furchate, 159 
palmate, 159 
parallel, 159 
pinni, 159 
reticulate, 159 
Leaves, bifacial, 172, 173 
binate, 166 
bipinnate, 123, 126 
biternate, 166 
bract, 156 
bracteolar, 155 
centric, 172 
compound, 161 
palmately, 165 
pinnately, 165 
convergent, 169, 172 
decompound, 166 
development of lamina of, 169 
dorso ventral, 169 

hydrophytic, 169, 172 
mesophytic, 169, 171 
umbrophytic, 169, 170 
xerophytie, 169, 171 
foliage, 156 

Leaves, imparipinnate, 165 
interruptedly pinnate, 165 
lyrate, 165 

origin and development of, 

156 

palmate, 165 
paripinnate, 165 
pinnate, 165 
primordial, 156 
scale, 156 
simple, 161 
stomata of, 173 
ternate, 166 
trifoliate, 166 

types of Angiospermous, 155 
xerophytie, 169, 172 
Lecanora, 281 
Lechea, 369 
Legume, 206 


Leguminosae, 341 

placentation in, 197 
root tubercles of, 132, 133 
Lemon, fruit of, 209 
Lenticels, 146 
Leptandra, 393 
Leptome, 112 
Leucoplastids, 69, 76 
Levisticum, 378 
officinale, 378 
Levulose, 74 
Lichens, 280, 282 
Licmophora, 239 

Life history, of an angiosperm, 53, 58 
of aspidium, 33, 45 
of black mold, 248, 250 
of claviceps purpurea, 265, 267 
of fern, 33, 45 
of gymnosperm, 45, 53 
of moss, 286, 287 
of mushrooms, 274, 278 
of rust, 269, 271 
of smut, 267 
Lignin, 97 
Lignocellulose, 98 
Ligule, 168 
Lilac, 381 
Liliaceae, 301, 303 
Liliales, 301 
Lilium, 301 
Lily Family, 301 

Lima bean, histology of, 217, 218 
Limb, 184 

Limonis Cortex, 350 
Linaceae, 346 
Linaria, 189, 392, 393 
corolla of, 187 
Linden Family, 363 
stem, 147 
Linin, 71 
Linnaeus, 4 
Linum, 347 

usitatissimum, 347 
Lipase, 96 


INDEX 


461 


Lippia lanceolata, 395 
Liquidambar orientalis, 338 
Fig- of, 337 
Litmus, 282 
Liverworts, 283 
Lobelia inflata, 402 
Lobeliaceae, 402 
Loganiaceae, 382 
Loment, 207 
Lomentum, 207 
Lonicera, 399 
Lunaria, 184 
Lunularia, Fig. of, 282 
Lupulinum, 319 
Lychnis, 183 
Lycoperdales, 278 
Lycoperdon, 278 
Lycopodiaceae, 288 
Lycopodium, 5 
Lycopodium clavatum, 288 
Lythraceae, 371 

Mace, 82 
Macis, 330 
Macrocystis, 242 
Macromorphology, 1 
Madder family, 398 
Magnolia family, 324 
Magnoliaceae, 324 
Mahogany Family, 352 
Making of sections, 15 
Male Fern, 33, 44 
Male Jalap, 388 
Mallotus philippinensis, 355 
Mallow Family, 363 
Maltase, 95 
Maltose, 75 
Maltum, 299 
Malva Folia N. F., 365 
Malva rotundifolia, 363, 365 
sylvestris, 365 
Malvaceae, 363 

anthers of, 191 
Malvales, 361 


Mamillaria, 371 
Manaca, 391 
Mangels, 323 
Mangroves, 410 
Manihot, 94, 355 

utilissima, 81, 96, 355 
Manna, 381 
Maple, 4, 207 
Maple Family, 358 
Maranta arundinacea, 79 
starch, 79 
Marchantia, 283 
Marchantiales, 283 
Marrubium, 5 

Marrubium vulgare, 109, 397 
Marsdenia Condurango, 386 
Marsh, 409 
Mastiche, 304 
Matico, 311 
Matricaria, 406 

Chamomilla, 405, 406 
Maturation of pollen grain in Angio- 
sperms, generally, 200 
in Erythronium, 55 
of embryo sac and formation of 
female gametophyte, 200 
Maw seed, 333 
May Apple, calyx of, 184 
Mayer’s albumin fixative, 27 
Mechanical tissues, 120 
Medullary rays, 116 
Megaceros, 283 
Megasorus, 213 
Megaspore, 49, 55, 197 
Megasporophyll, defined, 195 
Melaleuca, 5 

Melaeluca Leucadendrori, 375 
Melia, 353 
Meliaceae, 352 
Melibiose, 75 
Melilotus, 344 

officinalis, 344 
Melissa officinalis, 397 
Melochia, 361 


462 


INDEX 


Melon tree, 369 
Membrane crystals, 87 
Menispermaceae, 327 
Menispermum, 328 
canadense, 328- 
Mentha piperita, 397 

Fig. of glandular trichomes, 107 
spicata, 397 
viridis, 397 

Menyanthes trifoliata, 384 
Mericarp, 206 

histology of a, 212 
Meristem, 100 
Merulius, 274 
Mesocarp, 202 
Mesophytes, 411 
Metabolism, 62 
Metachlamydeae, 378 
Method for mounting and staining 
bacteria, 224, 225 
for preparation of Canada balsam 
mount, 21 

for the preparation of a glycerin- 
gelatin mount, 22, 23 
for fixing, dehydrating, hardening 
and imbedding in paraffine, 
23, 24, 25, 26 

for sectioning and mounting ma¬ 
terial imbedded in paraffine, 
26, 27 

for imbedding in celloidin, 28, 29 
for sectioning celloidin material, 
29 

for staining and mounting cel¬ 
loidin sections, 29, 30 
of examining reserve starches, 77 
for staining and mounting par¬ 
affine material, affixed to 
slide, 27, 28 
Gram’s, 225 
Methylene Blue, 91, 98 
Loffler’s, 226 

Methylis Salicylas, 316, 380 
Mexican Grass, 75, 267 


Mezereum, 371 
Micrandra, 355 
Micrococci, types of, 220 
Micrococcus catarrhalis, 224 
gonorrhceae, 224 
melitensis, 224 
meningitidis, 224 
Micro-crystals, 86, 87 
Micrometer, ocular, 31 
stage, 31 
Micrometry, 31 
Micromorphology, 1 
Micron, 31 
Micropyle, 197 
Microscope, binocular, 12 
care of, 14 
compound, 9, 14 
defined, 7 
dissecting, 8 
Figs, of, 8, 10, 11, 12 
lamp, 12 

rules for care of, 14 
-simple, 7 

Microscopic measurement, 31, 32 
Microsorus, 188, 190 
Microsporangia, 190 
Microspore, 193 
Microsporophylls, 188 
Microspira, 221 
Microtomes, 16, 20 
hand, 16, 17 
rotary, 18, 19, 20 
sliding, 17, 18 
Middle lamella, 61 
Milkweed Family, 386 
Milkwort Family, 354 
Mimosa, 66, 341 

Spegazzini, 66, 67, 68 
thigmotropic reactions in. 68 
Mimoseae, 341 
Mint Family, 395 
Mistletoe, 101, 124 
Mitchella, 398 
Mitella, 336 


INDEX 


463 


Mitosis, 71, 74 
Mold, black, 248 
blue, 2 56 
bread, 248 
green, 256 

Momordica Balsamina, 401 
Monarda, 396 
punctata, 397 
Monkshood, 324 
Monoclinic prisms, 86 
Monocotyledon, morphology of typical 
plants of, 296 
Monocotyledoneae, 296 
Monotropa, 379 
uni flora, 379 
Moonseed Family, 327 
Moraceae, 319 
Morchella esculenta, 265 
Fig. of, 264 
Morels, 265 

Morning Glory Family, 386 
Morphology, defined, 1 
Mosses, 284, 287 
Motherwort, 397 
Mountain Ash, 74 
Mountain Mint, 397 
Mounts, Canada balsam, 21, 22 
glycerin-gelatin, 22, 23 
temporary, 20 
permanent, 20, 23 
Mucilage, 90, 91 

cell content, 90, 91 
defined, 90 
membrane, 90, 91 
micro-chemic test for* 91 
Mucor mucedo, 250 
stolonifer, 248 
Mucorales, 248 
Mucuna pruriens, 344 
Muhlenbeckia, 321 
Mulberry Family, 319 
Musci, 284 
Mushroom, 274, 275 
Mustard, corolla of, 186 


Mustard Family, 334 
stamens of, 189 
Mutisia, 404 
Mycelium, 247 
Mycobacteriaceae, 221 
Mycobacterium, 221 
Mycorrhiza, 264 
Myosotis, 389 
Myrcia acris, 375 
Myrica N. F., 315 

Caroliniensis, 133, 314 
cerifera, 133, 313, 314, 315 
Gale, 315 
Macfarlanei, 133 

Myricaceae, characters of family, 312, 
3i5 

root tubercles of, 132, 133, 134, 
i 35 , 312 
Myricales, 312 
Myrobalans Family, 375 
Myristica, 215, 329, 330 
fragrans, 329, 330 
Myristicaceae, 329 
Myronase, 96 
Myrosin, 96 
Myrrh Family, 351 
Myrrha, 352 
Myrtaceae, 374 

laminae of, 172 
Myrtales, 371 
Myrtiflorae, 371 
Myrtle Family, 374 
Myxogastrales, 3 
Myxomycetes, 230 

Natural system, 2 
Naturalized, defined, 1 
Neea, 84 
Negundo, 359 
Nepenthes, 96 
Nepenthin, 96 
Nepeta cataria, 397 
Nephrodium. See Dryopteris. 

Nest fungi, 279 


464 


INDEX 


Nettle family, cystoliths in, 88 
Nicotiana tabacum, 391 
Nicotine, micro-chemic test for, 84 
Nidulariales, 279 
Nightshade, 391 
Family, 390 
Node, 137 
Nomenclature, 4-7 
Non-protoplasmic cell contents, 74-96 
Nostoc, 229 
Nucellus, 54, 196 
Nuclear membrane, 61, 69 
Nuclei, assisting, 200 
polar, 200 
Nucleins, 89 
Nucleolus, 60, 61, 68 
Nucleus, 60, 68 

division, 71, 72 
endosperm, 57 
Nut, 208 

Nutgall, Fig. of, 317 
Nutlet, 206, 207 
Nutmeg Family, 329 
Nux Vomica, 215, 329, 384 
Enzyme in, 95 
Nyssa, 378 

Oaks, 316 

black, 317 
white, 317 
Ochrea, 169 
Ocimum Basilicum, 397 
Ocrea, 321 
Octant cells, 44 
Ocular micrometer, 31 
(Edogonium, 71 
Oil, benne, 393 

bitter almond, 92 
cassia, 92 
cedarwood, 295 
chaulmoogra, 368 
cocoanut, 300 
linseed, 347 
mustard, 92 


Oil, palm, 300 

rose geranium, 346 
spike, 397 
turpentine, 92 
Oils, fixed, 91 

nitrogenated, 92 
oxygenated, 92 
sulphurated, 92 
volatile, 92 
Olea Europaea, 381 
Oleaceae, 381 
Oleander, latex of, 94 
Oleoresins, 92 
Oleum anisi, 324 

aurantii florum, 351 
betulae, 316 
bergamottae, 351 
cadinum, 295 
cajeputi, 375 
chenopodii, 324 
cinnamomi, 332 
erigerontis, 407 
gossypii seminis, 365 
juniperi, 295 
lavendplae, 397 
• lini, 347 

myristicae, 330 
olivae, 381 
pini pumilionis, 295 
rosmarini, 397 
ricini, 355 
santali, 320 
sesami, 393 
terebinthinae, 295 
theobromatis, 362 
thy mi, 397 
tiglii, 355 
Olibanum, 352 
Olive Family, 381 
Oogonia, 241 
Oogonium, 245 
Oomycetes, 251 
Oospore, 234, 242 
Operculina Turpethum, 388 


INDEX 


46S 


Operculum, 287 
Ophioglossales, 3 
Opium, 94, 333 
Optical combination, 32 
Opuntia, 370 
Opuntiales, 370 
Orcein, 282 
Orchid family, 305 

floral organs of, 307 
Orchidaceae, 305 
Orchideae, 307 
Orange, fruit of, 210 
Order, 2 

Orders, naming of, 7 
Ordinary Parenchyma, 101 
Oregon balsam, 295 
Organs, essential, 181 
plant, 121 
reproductive, 121 
vegetative, 121 
Origanum, 397 

majorana, 397 
vulgare, 397 
Oscillatoria, 228, 229 
Osmic acid, 23 
Ostwald, 94 

Ourouparia Gambir, 398 
Outline of plant groups, 3, 4 
Ovary, 195 

Ovule, amphitropous, 197 
anatropous, 197 
campylotropous, 197 
immature angiospermous, Fig. 
of, 201 

matured embryo sac in angio¬ 
spermous ovule, Fig. of, 
201 

orthotropous, 197 
shape of, 197 
Ovules, 195 

defined, 196 
in angiosperms, 196 
in gymnosperms, 196 
position of, 196 
30 


Ovum, 43 
Oxytropism, 64 

Pachistima, 356, 357 
Palaquium, 380 
Palm cocoanut, 299 
Date, 299 
Family, 299 
oil, 300 
Palmeae, 299 

Panax quinquefolium, 376 
repens, 376 
Pandorina, 232 
Panicle, 179 

Pansy, papillae on epidermis. to8 
Papaver, 332 
latex of, 94 
placentation in, 197 
somniferum, 333 
Papaveraceae, 332 
Papaverales, 332 
Papain, 96, 369 
Papaw, 96, 369 
Papaw Family, 369 
Papilionaceae, 341, 342 
Pappus, 202 
Paprika, 391 
Papyrus, 409 
Paraphyses, 245, 256, 286 
Parasite, 247 
Pareira, 328 
Parenchyma, 101 
assimilation, 101 
conducting, 101 
ordinary, 101 
phloem, 101 
reserve, 103 
wood, 101 
Parietales, 366 
Parmelia, 282 
Parsley Family, 377 
Passiflora, 183, 369 
Passiflora N. F., 369 
incarnata, 369 


466 


INDEX 


Passifloraceae, 369 
Passion Flower Family, 369 
Pathogens, 219 
Paullinia, 5 
Paullinia Cupana, 358 
Paulownia imperialis, 392 
Pea Family, 341 
Peach, 209, 338 
Pear, 338 

fruit of, 210 
stone cells of, 104 
Peat mosses, 286 
Pedaliaceae, 393 
Pedicel, 178 
Pedicularis, 392 
Peduncle, 178 
Peireskia, 37o, 371 
Pelargonium, 345 
capitatum, 346 
odoratissimum, 346 
Radula, 346 
Penicillium, 256 

brevicaule, 260, 261 
camemberti, 259, 260 
expansum, 260 
glaucum, 257, 258, 259 
roqueforti, 259 
Pentstemon, 189, 393 
Peony, 325 
Pepo, 209 

Pepper Family, 310 
Perianth, 185 
Periblem, 100, 122 

Pericambium, 37,124,126,127,128,140 

Pericarp, 202 

Pericladium, 167, 377 

Pericycle, 37, 140 

Periderm, 147 

Peridiolum, 279 

Peridium, 278 

Perigone, 183 

Perithecia, 265, 266 

Permanent mounts, preparation of, 20- 

30 


Peronosporales, 251 
Pertusaria, 281 
Petals, 185 
Petiole, 167, 168 
Petroselini Radix, 377 
Petroselinum, 377 
sativum, 377 
Petunia, 391 
Peziza, 256 

repanda, Fig. of, 256 
Pezizales, 256 
Pfeffer, 63 
Phaeophyceae, 242 
Phallales, 279 
Phanerogamia, 292 
Pharmaceutical Botany, defined, 2 
Phaseolus lunatus, structure of seed 
of, 217, 218 
Phaseolus multifiorus, 

cross-sections of root of. 126 
Phelloderm^ 147 
Philadelphus, 336 
Phloem, defined, 119 
internal, 146 
interxylary, 146 
intraxylary, 146 
parenchyma, 101 
Phloroglucin, 98 
Phoenix, 295 

sylvestris, 75 
Photogens, 219 
Photosynthesis, 40 
defined, 155 
Phragmidiothrix, 221 
Phragmites, 409 
Phycocyanin, 94 
Phycoerythrin, 94 
Phycophaein, 94, 242 
Phycomycetes, 247 
Phycoxanthin, 242 
Phyllotaxy, 156 
Physcia stellaris, Fig. of, 280 
Physiology, defined, 1 
Physostigma, 198, 344 


INDEX 


Physostigma, Fig. of, 345 
venenosum, 344 
Phytogeography, 1 
Phytoglobulins, 89, 90 
Phytolacca, 132, 324 
decandra, 324 
Fig. of, 323 
Phytolaccacese, 324 
Phytopalaeontology, 2 
Phytopathology, 1 
Phytophthora, 251 
Picea, 294 

canadensis, 295 


174 , I 7 S 
Pimenta, 374, 375 
officinalis, 375 
Pimiento, 391 
Pimpinella, 378 
Anisum, 377 
magna, 378 
Saxifraga, 378 
Pinaceae, 294 
Pine, inflorescence of, 294 
Family, 294 
Stem, 45 
Pineapple, 96 
Pinenes, 92 
Pinites succinifer, 295 
Pinna, 290 
Pinnule, 290 
Pinus, 294 
alba, 295 


Pinus, austriaca, 47 
maritima, 295 
montana, 295 
palustris, 295 
sylvestris, 48 
strobus, 45, 295 
Piperaceae, 310, 311 
Piper angustifolium, 311 
cubeba, 311 
fruit of, 209 
methysticum, 311 
nigrum, 311 
placentation of, 197 
Piscidia Erythrina, 344 
Pistacia vera, 356 
lentiscus, 356 
Pistachio, 356 
Pistil, 196 

dicarpellary, 196 
monocarpellary, 196 
polycarpellary, 196 
tricarpellary, 196 
system, 195 
Pix Burgundica, 295 
Canadensis, 295 
Liquida, 295 
Placenta, defined, 197 
Placentation, 197 
Plankton, 409 
Planococcus, 220 
Planosarcina, 220 
Plant, acaulescent, 136 
anemophilous, 199 
annual, 124 
biennial, 124 
caulescent, 136 
cell, 60 
dioecious, 183 
entomophilous, 199 
geography, 1 
hairs, 108, 109 
hydrophilous, 200 
indigenous, 1 
monoecious, 182 


mariana, 295 
rubra, 295 
Pickerel weed, 101 
Picrasma excelsa, 351 
Picric acid, 23 
Pigments, 93 
Pileus, 274 
Pilobolus, .248 
Pilocarpus, 349, 350 
Jaborandi, 350 
microphyllus, 350 
neighboring-cells of leaf epidermis, 


INDEX 


468 

Plant, naturalized, 1 
organs, 121-218 
perennial, 124 
tissues, 90-120 
zoophilous, 200 

Plantaginaceae, placentation in, 197 

Plasma membranes, 61, 73 

Plasmodiocarp, 231 

Plasmodium, 230 

Plasmolysis, figure illustrating, 69 

Plastids, 68, 69 

Platystemon, 332 

Plectascales, 256 

Plerome, 100, 122 

Pleurococcaceae, 232 * 

Pleurococcus, 232 

Pleuston, 409 

Plum, 209, 338 

Plumule, 121, 135 

Pod, 206 

Fig. of, 205 
Podophyllum, 327 

peltatum, 327, 328 
Polemoniales, 386 
Pollen, 54, ss, 193, 195 
maturation of, 55 
Pollen grains, Fig. of, 194 
germinating, 56 
pine, 83 

Pollination, 50, 56, 199 
Pollinia, 195 
Polyembryony, 59 
Polygala, 96 
lutea, 355 
senega, 354, 355 
Polygalaceae, 354 
Polygonaceae, 197, 321 
Polygonales, 321 
Polygonatum, 302 
Polygonum, 321 
Bistorta, 322 
Polypodiaceae, 292 
Polyporaceae, 274 
Polyporus, enzyme in, 95 


Polyporus, officinalis, 274 
Poly trichum commune, Fig. of, 285 
life history of, 286, 287 
Pome, 209 

of apple, Tig. of, 210 
Pomegranate Family, 371 
Ponteria, 380 
Poplar, 312 
Poppy, calyx of, 184 
Family, 332 
Populi Gemmae, 312 
Populus balsamifera, 312 
nigra, 312 
Pore Fungi, 274 
Porella, 283 
Potato, 391 
Potentilla, 185 
silvestris, 341 
Preflora tion, 181 
Prefoliation, 157, 158 
Prickles, 138 
Primula, style of, 199 
Primulaceae, placentation in, 197 
Principes, 299 

Principles of classification, 2, 3 
Privet, 381 

California, 127 
Proembryo, 242 
Promycelium, 267 
Proportions of stamens, 189 
Protective tissues, 120 
Proteins, 40, 89 
tests for, 89 
Prothallial cushion, 43 
Prothallus, 41, 290 
Protoascales, 251 
Protobasidiomycetes, 267 
Protococcales, 232 
Protonema, 41, 283 
Protophloem, 127, 129, 143 
Protophyta, 219 
Protoplasm, 62 

properties of, 62, 68 
Protoplasmic cell contents, 68-70 


INDEX 


469 


Protoxylem, 127, 129, 143 
Prune, 209 
Prunum N. F., 340 
Prunus, 4 

amygdalus var. amara, 340 
cerasus, 91 
domestica, 340, 341 
serotina, 338 
virginiana, 6 
Pseudocarp, 202 
Pseudobulbs, 137 
Pseudomonas radicicola, 132 
Fig. of, 134 
Pseudopodia, 230 
Pseudotsuga mucronata, 295 
Ptelea, 350 

trifoliata, 351 
Pteridophyta, 287-292 
Pterocarpus marsupium, 344 
santalinus, 343 
Puccinia Graminis, 270 
Puff Balls, 278 
Pulsatilla, 327 
Pulvinus, 167 
Pumpkin, 400 
Punica, 371 

Granatum, 372 
Punicaceae, 371 
Purging Cassia, 6 
Purified Siliceous Earth, 239 
Putamen, 202 

Pycnanthemum Montanum, 397 
Pyrenoid, 235, 236 
Pyrenomycetales, 265 
Pyrethri Flores, 406 
Pyrethrum, 406 
Pyrola, 380 
Pyrus malus, 340 
Pyxis, 206 

Quassia, 351 
amara, 351 
Quercus N. F., 319 
alba, 316, 319 


Quercus, N. F., chrysolepis, 316 
garryana, 316 
infectoria, 317, 319 
michauxii, 316 
occidentalis, 316 
platanoides, 316 
prinus, 316 
Suber, 316 
velutina, 316 
virginica, 316 
Quillaja N. F., 338 
Saponaria, 338 
Quince, fruit of, 210 

Raceme, 179 
Rachis, 178 
Radicle, 121 
Ranales, 324 
Ranunculaceae, 324 
Ranunculus, 324 
Raphe, 197, 214 
Raphides, 86, 87 
Raspberry, 210 
fruit of, 210 
Receptacle, 183 
Receptacles of Fucus, 243, 244 
Regma, 205, 206 
Rejuvenescence, 71 
Reproduction, asexual, 70 
defined, 68, 70 
sexual, 70 
vegetative, 42 

Resin, micro-chemic test for, 93 
Resina, 295 
Resins, 92 

Resinogenous layer, 92 
Reserve cellulose, 98 
parenchyma, 103 
starches, 77-81 
Respiration, 155 
Rhamnales, 359 
Rhamnase, 96 
Rhamnose, 96 


470 


INDEX 


Rhamnus cathartica, 359 
Frangula, 96, 359 
Purshiana, 359 
Rheum, 322 

officinale, 322 
palmatum, 321, 322 
tanguticum, 322 
Rhinanthus, 392 
Rhizoids, 283, 286, 2Q£> 

Rhizome, defined, 139 
Rhizopora, 410 
Rhizopus, 249 
nigricans, 248 
Rhododendron, 191 
Rhodophyceae, 246 
Rhodymenia palmata, 247 
Rhceadales, 332 
Rhubarb, 322 
Rhus, cotinus, 356 
fruit of, 209 
Glabra N. F., 356 
japonica, 356 
semialata, 356 
toxicodendron, 356 
typhina, 356 
venenata, 356 
Ribes, 336 
Riccia, 283, 409 
Ricciocarpus, 409 
Ricinus communis, 355 
Rocella, 281 
Rock Rose Family, 369 
Root, defined, 121 
adventitious, 123 
anomalous, 123 
California Privet, 12 7-131 
cap, 121, 122 

classification as to form, 123 
conical, 123 

distinction from stem, 123 
duration of, 124 
epiphytic, 123 
functions, 121 
fusiform, 123 


Root, generative tissues of, 122 
hairs, 121, 122 
histology, 124-13 2 
lateral, 123 
primary, 123 
secondary, 123 
system, 133 
tubercles, 13 2-135 
Roots, Dicotyledon, 125 

abnormal structure in, 132 
of parasitic plants, 123 
of primary growth, 125, 126 
of secondary growth, 126, 127 
Monocotyledon, 124 
multiple, 123 
napiform, 123 
nodule producing, 132 
Rootlet, cross section of in region of 
root hairs, 122 
Roridula, 335 
Rosa canina, 341 
centifolia, 341 
gallica, 338 
Rosa Gallica, 338 
Rosaceae, 338 
Rosales, 336 
Rose, 338 

family, 338 

Rosette aggregates, 86, 87 
Rosmarinus officinalis, 397 
Rubber, 94 
Rubi Fructus, 340 
Rubi Idaei Fructus, 340 
Rubiaceae, 398 
Rubiales, 398 
Rubus N. F., 338 
cuneifolius, 338 
Idaeus, 340 
nigrobaccus, 338 
strigosus, 340 
villosus, 338 
Rue Family, 349 
Ruellia ciliosa, 395 
Rumex N. F., 270 


INDEX 


47 1 


Rumex, 321 

acetosella, 321 
crispus, 322 
obtusifolius, 322 
Rust, wheat, 269, 270, 271 
Rusts, 268 
Ruta, 349 

graveolens, 351 

Rutaceae, 349 V 

hesperidin in, 82 
Ruteae, 349 

Sabal, 209, 300 
Sabbatia angularis, 384 
Sabina, 295 

Saccharomyces anomalus, 252 
apiculatus, 256 
cerevisiae, 251, 252, 253, 254 
ellipsoideus, 251, 252, 256 
exiguus, 251 
farinosus, 252 
hyalosporus, 252 
Ludwigii, 251 
mali Duclauxii, 251 
marxianus, 251 
membranifaciens, 252 
octosporus, 95 
pastorianus, 251 
Saccharomycetaceae, 251 
Saccharum,.299, 324 
officinarum, 299 
Saddle Fungi, 264 
Salep, 91 
Salicaceae, 311 
Salicales, 311 
Salicin, 82, 311, 312 

micro-chemic test for, 82 
Salicornia, 410 
Salix, 312 
alba, 312 
Salvia, 396, 397 
officinalis, 397 
Salvina, 292 
Samara, 207 


Sambucus, 399, 400 
canadensis, 400 
nigra, 400 
Samphire, 410 
Sandalwood Family, 319 
Sandaraca, 295 
Sandbox, 206, 355 
Sanguinaria canadensis, 333 
Sanseviera cylindrica, leaf of, 172 
Santalaceae, 319 
Santalales, 319 
Santalum album, 320 
Rubrum, 343 
Santonica, 407 
Santoninum, 406 
Sap, cell, 258 
crude, 39 
elaborated, 116 
nuclear, 71 
vacuoles, 61 
Sapindacese, 358 
Sapindales, 356 

Saponin, micro-chemic test for, 83 

Sapotaceae Family, 380 

Saprogens, 219 

Saprolegniales, 251 

Saprophyte, 247 

Sarcina, 220, 222 

Sarcocarp, 203 

Sarcosphaera, 257 

Sarracenia, style of, 198 

Sarraceniales, 335 

Sarsaparilla, 303 

endodermis of Mexican root, no 
of Honduras root, no 
Fig. of Honduras root in T. S.,*i25 
Sassafras, 331, 332 
Medulla, 332 
variifolium, 332 
Satureia hortensis, 397 
Saw Palmetto Palm, Fig. of, 300 
Saxifragaceae, 336 
Saxifrage, 336 
Family, 336 


47 2 


INDEX 


Scale leaves, 156 
Scales, 109 

Scammoniae Radix, 388 
Scape, 138 
Schizomycetes, 219 
Schizophyta, 219 
Schleiden, 60 

Schulze’s process of maceration, 30, 31 
Scilla, 303 
Scitaminales, 304 
Sclerenchyma, 103 
fibers, 105 
Sclerotium, 265 
Scoparius, 344 
Scopola Carniolica, 391 
Scorpioid cyme, 180 
Scotch Pine, 48 
Scouring Rushes, 289 
Scrophularia, 393 
Scrophulariaceae, 392 
Scullcap, 396 
Scutellaria lateriflora, 397 
Secale cere ale, 265 
Secretion canals, 119, 120 
reservoirs, 119, 120 
sacs, 119 

Secretory cells, 113 
Sections, making of, 15 
celloidin, 29 
paraffine, 26, 27 
radial-longitudinal, 16 
tangential-longitudinal, 16 
transverse, 16 
Seed, 213 

appendages, 213, 214 
albuminous, 215 
coats, 213, 214 
defined, 213 
Dicotyl, 217 
exalbuminous, 215 
germination, 216 
histology, 215-218 
Monocotyl, 215, 216 
Seed-grass, 409 


Seedling, 216, 217 
of White Pine, 52 
Selaginella, 288 
Martensii, 289 
Selaginellaceae, 288 
Semen Rapae, 335 
Senecio N. F., 406 
aureus, 406 
Senega, 355 
Senna, 343 

neighboring cells of, 174 
stomatal apparatus of, 175 
trichomes of, 107 
Sepaline, position, 185 
spurs, 184 
stipules, 184 
Sepals, 183 

epigynous, 184 
hypogynous, 184 
perigynous, 184 
Serenoa serrulata, 300 
Serpentaria, 321 
Serphyllum, 397 
Sesame Family, 393 
Sesamum indicum, 393 
Sieve, 112 

callus of plates, 98 
Silica, 88 

Siliceous Earths, 239 
Silicule, 206 
Siliqua, 206 
Simaruba amara, 351 
officinalis, 351 
Simarubaceae, 351 
Sinapis alba, 335 
nigra, 335 
Sinigrin, 96 
Siphonales, 241 
Sitotropism, 64 
Skunk Cabbage, 301 
Slime Molds, 230 
Smilax, 302 

medica, 303 
officinale, 303 





INDEX 


473 


Smilax, ornata, 303 
Smuts, 267 

Soap wort Family, 358 
Soft bast, 144 
Solanaceae, 390 
Solaneae, 191 

Solanine, micro-chemic test for, 85 
Solanum N. F., 391 
Solanum, 391 

carolinense, 391 
Dulcamara, 391 
tuberosum, 85 
Sorbinose, 74 
Soredia, 281 
Sorghum, 75, 299 
Sorosis, 2ri 
Sorus, 40, 290 
Sour Gum, 378 
Soy Bean, 344 
Spadix, 179 
Sparganium, 409 
Spathe, 178 
Species, 2 
Spermacia, 271 
Spermagonia, 271 
Spermatocyte, 43 
Spermatophyta, 292 
outline of, 4 

Spermatozoid of fern, 43 
Spermoderm, 213 
Sperms, 245 
Sphaerella, 232 
Sphagnales, 286 
Sphagnum, 286 

acutifolium, 284 
squarrosum, 284 
Spicebush, 331 
Family, 330 
Spiderwort, 66 
Spigelia, 382, 383 
marilandica, 384 
Spike, 179 
Spinach, 323 
Spine, 138 


Spirilla, types of, 221 
Spirillum, 221 

cholerae asiaticae, 224 
obermeieri, 224 
Spirochaeta, 221 
Spirogyra, 236 

life history of, 236, 237, 238 
Spirosoma, 221 
Sporangiophores, 248 
Spore, 41 

brand, 267 

Sporogonium, 283, 286 
Sporophore, 274 
Sporophyte, 33, 44 
Spruce Gum, 295 
Spurge Family, 355 
Spur shoot, 47 
Spurs, sepaline, 184 
Staff Tree Family, 356, 357 
Stage micrometer, 31 
Stain, for “acid proof” bacteria, 226 
Broca’s differential, 227 
Delafield’s haematoxylin, 29 
Ehrlich’s gentian violet, 226 
Gram’s, 223 

Lo flier’s methylene-blue, 226 
Van Ermengem’s flagella, 226, 227 
Ziehl’s carbol-fuchsin, 226 
Staining, 21, 22, 28, 29 
of bacteria, 224-227 
Stamen System, 188 
Stamens, color of, 190 
connation of, 189 
definite, 188 
diadelphous, 189 
didynamous, 189 
epigynous, 189 
gynandrous, 189 
histology of parts, 190-195 
hypogynous, 189 
indefinite, 188 
insertion of, 189 
monadelphous, 189 
perigynous, 189 


INDEX 


474 

Stamens, polyadelphous, 190 
proportions of, 189 
tetradynamous, 189 
triadelphous, 189 
Standardization of ocular micrometer, 
3i 

Staphisagria, 325 
Staphylococcus, 220, 222 
pyogenes aureus, 224 
Star Apple Family, 380 
Starch, 75 

assimilation, 75 
Barley, 78, 79 
Bean, 80, 81 
Buckwheat, 79 
Canna; 81 
Cassava, 80, 81 

characteristics of commercial 
kinds, 77-81 
compound grains, 77 
Corn, 79, 80 

fill, 77 

Maranta, 78, 79 
Pea, 80, 81 
Potato, 78, 79 
Rice, 79, 80 
Rye, 78 , 79 
Sago, 78, 81 
reserve, 76 

structure and composition of, 76 
Wheat, 78, 79 
Steckbeck, 68 
Stem, defined, 136 

direction of growth, 137 
distinction from root, 123 
functions, 136 
generative tissues of, 137 
modification of, 137, 138 
Stemonitis fusca, 230 
Stems, above-ground, 138 
aerial-tuberous, 137 
annual, 137, 138 
ascending, 137 
biennial, 137 


Stems, cactoid, 138 
climbing, 138 
decumbent, 137 
duration of, 137 
elongation of, 137 
endogenous, 139, 140 
exceptional types of dicotyl, 145, 
146 

exogenous, 139 
fruticose, 138 
herbaceous, 138 

histology of annual dicotyl, 140- 
142 

of perennial dicotyl, 143-145 
of herbaceous monocotyl, 152 
of woody monocotyl, 153, 154 
perennial, 138 
phylloid, 138 
procumbent, 137 
reclining, 137 
repent, 137 
scandent, 138 
size of, 136 
spiny, 137 

subterranean tuberous, 138 
suffruticose, 138 
tendriliform, 137 
twining, 137 
underground, 139 
Sterculiaceae, 361 
Sterigmata, 258, 259, 266 
Sterigmatocystis niger, 264 
Stevens, 85 
Stigma, 196, 199 
defined, 199 

of animal pollinated flowers, 199 
of wind pollinated flowers, 199 
papillae of, 199 
Stillingia, 355 

sylvatica, 355 
Stimuli, extrinsic, 62 
intrinsic, 62 
Stink horn, 279 
Stipe, 265, 274, 290 


INDEX 


475 


Stipule, defined, 168 
Stipules, 168, 169 
axillary, 169 
caducous scaly, 169 
lateral, 168 
modified, 169 
sepaline, 184, 185 
Stolon, 138 

Stoma mother-cell, 174 
Stomata, 106 

structure and development of, 
173-176 

transpiration, 106 
water, 106 
Stone cells, 103 
Stone cells, defined, 103 
Figs, of, 102, 104 
Stoneworts, 241 
Stramonium, 391 
Strawberry, 338 
Streptococcus, 220, 222 
erysipelatis, 224 
pneumoniae, 224' 

Streptothrix, 221 
bo vis, 224 
Strobile, 210, 211 
Stromata, 214 

Strophanthin, micro-chemic test for, 
82 

Strophanthus, 386 
hispidus, 385, 386 
Kombe, 386 

Strychnine, micro-chemic test for, 83 
Strychnos Ignatii, 384 

Nux Vomica, 382, 384 
Style, 195, 198 
arms, 198 

collecting hairs of, 198 
column, 198 
Styloids, Fig. of, 86 
Styraceae, 381 
Styrax, 338 

Benzoin, 381 
Suberin, 97 


Suberized walls, 98 
Sub-hymenium, 275 
Succinum, 295 
Succus Citri, 351 
Pomorum, 340 
Sucrose, 74 

Sudan III, 98 N 

Sugar cane, 75 
Sugars, 74 

Fliickiger’s micro-chemic test for 
determination of various 
kinds of, 74 
Sumac Family, 356 
Sumbul, 377 
Summer Savory, 397 
Sundew, effect of stimulus applied to 
tentacles of, 67 
Surirella, 240 
Sutures, 202 
Swarm spores, 231 
Sweet Basil, 397 
Sweet Potato, 387 
Swertia Chirayita, 384 
Syconium, 210, 211 
Sympetalae, 378 
Symphytum, 389, 390 
Symplocarpus foetidus, 301 
Synchytrium, 251 
Synedra, 240 
Synergids, 55 
Syringa, 381 

Systematic Botany, 219-407 
defined, 1 

Tabacum, 391 
Tamarindus, 344 
indica, 344 
Tanacetum, 407 
vulgare, 407 
Tannins, definition, 88 
kinds of, 88 
properties of, 88 
tests for, 88 
Tapetum, 191, 193 


476 


INDEX 


Tapioca, 355 

Taraxacum officinale, 406 
Taxodium, 410 
Taxonomy, defined, 1 
Taxus, 294 
Tea Family, 366 
Teak-wood, 395 
Tectona, 395 
Tegmen, 213 
Tela contexta, 275 
Teleutospores, 270 
Teliospores, 270 
Tendril, 138 
Terebinthina, 295 
Canadensis, 295 
Laricis, 295 
Ternstrcemiaceae, 366 
Terpenes, 92 

Terra Silicea Purificata, 239 
Testa, 213 
Tetrads, 193 
Tetraspores, 246 
Thalamus, 183 
Thallophyta, 219 
- outline of, 3 
Thallus, 219 
Thamnidium, 248, 250 
Thea sinensis, 366 
,Theaceae, 366 
Thelephorales, 273 
Theobroma, 361 
Theobroma Cacao, 362 
Thermotropism, 63 
Thigmotropism, 66-68 
Thiothrix, 222 
Thistle, 404, 406 
Thorn, 138 
Thornapple, 391 
Throat, 184 
Thuja, 294, 295 

occidentalis, 295 
Thymeleaceae, 371 
Thymus Serphyllum, 397 
vulgaris, 397 


Thyrsus, 180 
Tilia, 363 
Tiliaceae, 361, 363 
Tissue, 99 

assimilation parenchyma, 101 
chlorenchyma, 101 
collenchyma, 102, 103 
conducting parenchyma, 101 
cork, no 
cribiform, 112 
embryonic, 100 
endodermal, no 
epidermal, 106-109 
fundamental, 101 
generative, 99, 100 
ground, 101 
laticiferous, no 
medullary ray, 116 
meristematic, 100 
ordinary parenchyma, 101 
reserve parenchyma, 103 
sclerenchyma, 103-105 
sieve, 112 
stony, 103 
suberous, no 
tracheary, 112, 116 
Tissues, 99-120 

classified accd. to function, 120 
Tobacco, 391 
Toluifera Balsamum, 343 
Pereirae, 343 
Tomato, 208, 391 
Tooth Fungi, 274 
Tormentilla, 341 
Torus, 183 
Touranose, 75 
Toxins, 63 

Tracheae, 112, 113, 115 
Tracheary tissue, 112 
Tracheids, 116, 151 
Tradescantia zebrina, 69 
Tragacanth, 91 
Tragacantha, 342 
Trailing Arbutus, 380 


INDEX 


477 


Trama, 275 
Transpiration, 155 
Stomata, 106 
Tree, 138 

Trees, branching in, 139 
Trehalase, 95 
Trehalose, 75 
Tremellaceae, 272 
Tremellales, 271 
Trichomes, 107, 108, 109 
Trifolium N. F., 344 
pratense, 344 
repens, 341 

Trigonella Fcenum-graecum, 344 

Trillium, 303 

Tristicha, 88 

Triticum, 299 

Tropophytes, 411 

True Mosses, 286 

Truffles, 264 

Trunk, 138 

Trypsin, 96 

Tschirch, 92 

Tsuga canadensis, 295 

Tuber, 139 

Tuberales, 264 

Tubiflorae, 386 ' 

Turnera aphrodisiaca, 369 
diffusa, 369 
Turneraceae, 368 
Turpentine, 295 
Bordeaux, 295 
Turpeth Root, 388 
Tussilago Farfara, 406 
Twin crystals, 86 
Typha, 193, 194, 409 

Ulmaceae, 319 
Ulmus, 91, 319 
fulva, 319 
Ulothricaceae, 234 
Ulothrix zonata, 234, 235 
Umbel, 179 
Umbellales, 376 


Umbelliferae, 377 
Umbelliflorae, 376 
Uredinales, 268 
Uredinium, 270 
Uredo linearis, 270 
Uredospore, 270 
Urginea maritima, 303 
Urticales, 319 
Usnea, 281, 282 
Ustilaginales, 267 
Ustilago Maydis, 267 
Zeae, 267 
Fig. of, 268 
Utricle, 208 
Utricularia, 172 
Uva, 209 
Uva Ursi, 380 

neighboring cells of leaf epider¬ 
mis, 174, 175 

Vaccineae, 380 
Vaccinium, 380 
Vacuole, glycogen, 252 
Vacuoles, sap, 61 
Valerian Family, 402 
Valeriana, 402 

officinalis, 402 
Valerianaceae, 402 
Valves of fruits, 202 
Vanilla, 308 

planifolia, 308 
histology of fruit, 211, 212 
Varieties, naming of, 6 
Variety, 2 
Vaucheria, 91, 241 
Vaucheria terrestris, 235 
Vavaea, 353 
Veil, partial, 275 
universal, 277 
Venation, leaf, 159 
Venus fly-trap, 65, 67 
Veratrina, 303 

Veratrine, micro-chemic test for, 

84 


INDEX 


478 

Veratrum, 303 
album, 84 
viride, 303 
Verbasci Flores, 393 
Folia, 393 

Verbascum, 189, 393 
Blattaria, 392, 393 
phlomoides, 393 
Thapsiforme, 393 
Thapsus, 392, 393 
Verbena N. F., 395 
hastata, 395 
Verbenaceae, 395 
Vernation, 157, 158 
Veronica, 189, 392. 393 
virginica, 393 
Verticillaster, 180 
Viburnum, 399 
Lentago, 400 
Opulus, 400 
Prunifolium, 400 
Vinca, style of, 198 
Vinum Xericum, 361 
Viola tricolor, 368 
style of, 198 
Violacese, 368 
Viscum, 59 
Vitaceae, 359 
Vitis, 361 
Volatile oils, 92 
Volvocales, 232 
Volvox globator, life history of, 232- 
234 . 

Vouacapoua Araroba, 344 

Walnut Family, 315 
Waltheria, 361 
Water Ferns, 292 
Water Leaf Family, 388 
Watermelon, 400 
seed, 401 

Water stomata, 106 
Weigelia, 399, 400 
Welwitchia, 58 


Weymouth Pine, 45 
Wheat, Fig. of plant, 297 
rust, 269 

Wheat, Fig. of fruit, 208 
starch, 78, 79 

White Pine, life history of, 45-52 
Wild Black Cherry, 6, 96 
Cherry, 4 
Willow, 311, 312 
Winter’s Bark, 324 
Witchhazel Family, 337 
Wood, defined, 150 
fibers, 105 
heart-, 152 

microscopic characters of angio- 
spermous and gymnosper- 
mous, 152 
parenchyma, 101 
pine, 151 
sap-, 152 

Wood Rush, parenchyma of, 101 

Xanthophyll, 93 
Xanthoxyli Fructus N. F., 351 
Xanthoxylum, 350, 351 
americanum, 351 
Clava-Herculis, 351 
Xerophytes, 410 
Xylem, 119 

stages in development of elements 
of, 114 

Yam Family, 393 
Yeasts, bottom,^255 
defined, 251 

Hansen’s classification of, 251, 252 
top, 255 
Yucca, 301 

Zanthoxyleae, 349 
Zea N. F., 299 
Mays, 299 

bundle of stem of, 115 
inflorescences of, 298 




INDEX 


479 


Zedoaria, 255 

Ziehl’s Carbol-fuchsin, 226 

Zingiber, 304 

officinale,'304 
Fig. of, 306 
Zingiberaceae, 304 
Zooglcea, 133 
Zoospore, 71 


Zoospores, 231, 235 
Zygnemaceae, 236 
Zygomycetes, 248 
Zygophyllaceae, 348 
Zygospore, 231, 235, 250 
Zygote, 71 
Zymase, 74, 95 
Zymogens, 219 


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